NOAH'S ARK 6.5" TIN BOX Potpourri Designs Beury round container Bible art animal

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Seller: sidewaysstairsco ✉️ (1,180) 100%, Location: Santa Ana, California, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 194233568644 NOAH'S ARK 6.5" TIN BOX Potpourri Designs Beury round container Bible art animal. Check out our other new and used items>>>>>HERE! (click me) FOR SALE: A tin featuring a fun, illustrated interpretation of a biblical event 1994 POTPOURRI DESIGNS "NOAH'S ARK" ROUND TIN BOX DETAILS: It's Noah's Ark! This tin container by Potpourri Designs tells the story of Noah’s Ark with colorful art created by the fantastic illustrator, Jeanne Beury. The tin, especially the illustration, has wonderfully vivid colors. The top of the lid has a subtle, light reflecting frosted crackle texture while the rest of the tin is smooth in texture. The tin compartment inside and out and the lid's underside are a solid sky blue-like color. The lid of this tin shows Noah’s Ark floating in the flood waters (as told in the Genesis Bible story). Inside the red and green boat are Noah and his wife along with animals and plants including: an elephant, a lion, an ostrich, a kangaroo, a hippopotamus, a cow, a moose, a koala, sheep, a bear, a camel, a giraffe, penguins, a cat, dogs, a snake, a fox, chickens, a toucan, a gorilla, a walrus, a panda, a turkey, an owl, a baboon, a pig, rabbits, a pelican and a tiger. This Bible-themed tin can be used to hold household trinkets, cookies, candy, sewing or crafting supplies, small kitchen items, CDs, buttons or whatever you choose as long as it fits. It can also be used as a gift/presentation box. Jeanne Beury created art featuring animals, flowers, seasonal designs, Christmas characters and nature scenes for Potpourri Designs in the early 1990s. Her designs were featured on home décor items such as tins, mugs, plates/platters and more.   The characters, both people and animals in her work have a whimsical, playful look and are often very colorful. The Noah’s Ark artwork design especially shows these characteristics along with showing varied textures of the waves, boat and different animal furs. Dimensions: Height: approx. 2" Diameter: approx. 6-1/2" CONDITION: In very good, pre-owned condition. This vintage tin box has just a few visible signs of previous use/ownership. The lid and artwork are in great condition and have no fading/color loss. The bottom of the tin has the original manufacturer sticker attached but it does have some wear. Please see photos. *To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out* THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK. *ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* "Noah's Ark (Hebrew: תיבת נח‎; Biblical Hebrew: Tevat Noaḥ)[Notes 1] is the vessel in the Genesis flood narrative (Genesis chapters 6–9) through which God spares Noah, his family, and examples of all the world's animals from a world-engulfing flood.[1] The story in Genesis is repeated, with variations, in the Quran, where the Ark appears as Safinat Nūḥ (Arabic: سفينة نوح‎ "Noah's boat") and al-fulk (Arabic: الفُلْك). Searches for Noah's Ark have been made from at least the time of Eusebius (c. 275–339 CE), and believers in the Ark continue to search for it in modern times. Many searches have been mounted for the Ark, but no confirmable physical proof of the Ark has ever been found.[2] There is no scientific evidence that Noah's Ark existed as it is described in the Bible.[3] There is also no evidence of a global flood, and most scientists agree that it would be impossible.[4] Some researchers believe that a real (though localized) flood event in the Middle East could potentially have inspired the oral and later written narratives from Genesis; a Black Sea Deluge 7500 years ago has been proposed as such a historical candidate.... Description The structure of the Ark (and the chronology of the flood) are homologous with the Jewish Temple and with Temple worship.[7] Accordingly, Noah's instructions are given to him by God (Genesis 6:14–16): the ark is to be 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high. Commonly believed is the notion that a 'cubit' is equal to 18 inches, or the length of a man's arm from elbow to fingertip. Scripture, on the other hand, in conformity with its parallel to the Temple, prescribes unique measurements for such a 'sacred,' or 'long,' cubit. In Ezekiel 43:13, the dimensions for the sacred altar are noted to be in such cubits as "that cubit being a cubit and a handbreadth," or 21 to 25 inches. This would result in ark dimensions of 525-624 ft. x 87.5-104 ft. x 52.5-62.4 ft., or roughly the size of the aircraft carrier USS Independence.[8] Some assert that these dimensions are based on a numerological preoccupation with the number sixty, the same number characterizing the vessel of the Babylonian flood-hero.[1] Its three internal divisions reflect the three-part universe imagined by the ancient Israelites: heaven, the earth, and the underworld.[9] Each deck is the same height as the Temple in Jerusalem, itself a microcosmic model of the universe, and each is three times the area of the court of the tabernacle, leading to the suggestion that the author saw both Ark and tabernacle as serving for the preservation of human life.[10][11] It has a door in the side, and a tsohar, which may be either a roof or a skylight.[12] It is to be made of Gopher wood, a word which appears nowhere else in the Bible - and divided into qinnim, a word which always refers to birds' nests elsewhere in the Bible, leading some scholars to emend this to qanim, reeds.[13] The finished vessel is to be smeared with koper, meaning pitch or bitumen: in Hebrew the two words are closely related, kaparta ("smeared") ... bakopper.[13] Origins Mesopotamian precursors Main article: Flood myth For well over a century, scholars have recognized that the Bible's story of Noah's Ark is based on older Mesopotamian models.[14] Because all these flood stories deal with events that allegedly happened at the dawn of history, they give the impression that the myths themselves must come from very primitive origins, but the myth of the global flood that destroys all life only begins to appear in the Old Babylonian period (20th–16th centuries BCE).[15] The reasons for this emergence of the typical Mesopotamian flood myth may have been bound up with the specific circumstances of the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2004 BCE and the restoration of order by the First Dynasty of Isin.[16] There are nine known versions of the Mesopotamian flood story, each more or less adapted from an earlier version. In the oldest version, inscribed in the Sumerian city of Nippur c.1600 BCE, the hero is King Ziusudra. This story, the Sumerian flood myth, probably derives from an earlier version. The Ziusudra version tells how he builds a boat and rescues life when the gods decide to destroy it. This basic plot is common in several subsequent flood-stories and heroes, including Noah. Ziusudra's Sumerian name means "He of long life." In Babylonian versions, his name is Atrahasis, but the meaning is the same. In the Atrahasis version, the flood is a river flood.[17]:20–27 The version closest to the biblical story of Noah, as well as its most likely source, is that of Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[18] A complete text of Utnapishtim's story is a clay tablet dating from the 7th century BCE, but fragments of the story have been found from as far back as the 19th-century BCE.[18] The last known version of the Mesopotamian flood story was written in Greek in the 3rd century BCE by a Babylonian priest named Berossus. From the fragments that survive, it seems little changed from the versions of two thousand years before.[19] The parallels between Noah's Ark and the arks of Babylonian flood-heroes Atrahasis and Utnapishtim have often been noted. Atrahasis' Ark was circular, resembling an enormous quffa, with one or two decks.[20] Utnapishtim's ark was a cube with six decks of seven compartments, each divided into nine subcompartments (63 subcompartments per deck, 378 total). Noah's Ark was rectangular with three decks. There is believed to be a progression from a circular to a cubic or square to rectangular. The most striking similarity is the near-identical deck areas of the three arks: 14,400 cubits2, 14,400 cubits2, and 15,000 cubits2 for Atrahasis, Utnapishtim, and Noah, only 4% different. Professor Finkel concluded that "the iconic story of the Flood, Noah, and the Ark as we know it today certainly originated in the landscape of ancient Mesopotamia, modern Iraq."[21] Linguistic parallels between Noah's and Atrahasis' arks have also been noted. The word used for "pitch" (sealing tar or resin) in Genesis is not the normal Hebrew word, but is closely related to the word used in the Babylonian story.[22] Likewise, the Hebrew word for "ark" (tevah) is nearly identical to the Babylonian word for an oblong boat (ṭubbû), especially given that "v" and "b" are the same letter in Hebrew: bet (ב).[21] However, the causes for God or the gods sending the flood differ in the various stories. In the Hebrew myth, the flood inflicts God's judgment on wicked humanity. The Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh gives no reasons, and the flood appears the result of divine caprice.[23] In the Babylonian Atrahasis version, the flood is sent to reduce human overpopulation, and after the flood, other measures were introduced to limit humanity.[24][25][26] Composition Main article: Genesis flood narrative § Composition There is consensus among scholars that the Torah (the first five books of the Bible, beginning with Genesis) was the product of a long and complicated process that was not completed until after the Babylonian exile.[27] Since the 18th century the Flood narrative has been analysed as a paradigm example of the combination of two different versions of a story into a single text, with one marker for the different versions being a consistent preference for different names "Elohim" and "Yahweh" to denote God.[28] In later works Rabbinic Judaism The Building of Noah's Ark (painting by a French master of 1675). Main article: Noah in rabbinic literature The myth of the flood closely parallels the story of the creation: a cycle of creation, un-creation, and re-creation, in which the Ark plays a pivotal role.[29] The universe as conceived by the ancient Hebrews comprised a flat disk-shaped earth with the heavens above and Sheol, the underworld of the dead, below.[30] These three were surrounded by a watery "ocean" of chaos, protected by the firmament, a transparent but solid dome resting on the mountains which ringed the earth.[30] Noah's three-deck Ark represents this three-level Hebrew cosmos in miniature: heavens, earth, and waters beneath.[31] In Genesis 1, God created the three-level world as a space in the midst of the waters for humanity; in Genesis 6–8, God re-floods that space, saving only Noah, his family, and the animals in the Ark.[29] The Talmudic tractates Sanhedrin, Avodah Zarah, and Zevahim relate that, while Noah was building the Ark, he attempted to warn his neighbors of the coming deluge, but was ignored or mocked. God placed lions and other ferocious animals to protect Noah and his family from the wicked who tried to keep them from the Ark. According to one Midrash, it was God, or the angels, who gathered the animals and their food to the Ark. As there had been no need to distinguish between clean and unclean animals before this time, the clean animals made themselves known by kneeling before Noah as they entered the Ark. A differing opinion is that the Ark itself distinguished clean animals from unclean, admitting seven pairs each of the former and one pair each of the latter.[citation needed] According to Sanhedrin 108b, Noah was engaged both day and night in feeding and caring for the animals, and did not sleep for the entire year aboard the Ark.[32] The animals were the best of their kind and behaved with utmost goodness. They did not procreate so that the number of creatures that disembarked was exactly equal to the number that embarked. The raven created problems, refusing to leave the Ark when Noah sent it forth and accusing the patriarch of wishing to destroy its race, but as the commentators pointed out, God wished to save the raven, for its descendants were destined to feed the prophet Elijah.[citation needed] According to one tradition, refuse was stored on the lowest of the Ark's three decks, humans and clean beasts on the second, and the unclean animals and birds on the top; a differing interpretation described the refuse as being stored on the topmost deck, from where it was shoveled into the sea through a trapdoor. Precious stones, as bright as the noon sun, provided light, and God ensured the food remained fresh.[33][34][35] In an unorthodox interpretation, the 12th-century Jewish commentator Abraham ibn Ezra interpreted the ark as a vessel that remained underwater for 40 days, after which it floated to the surface.[36] Christianity An artist's depiction of the construction of the Ark, from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493). A woodcut of Noah's Ark from Anton Koberger's German Bible Interpretations of the ark narrative played an essential role in early Christian doctrine. The First Epistle of Peter (composed around the end of the first century AD[37]) compared Noah's salvation through water to Christian salvation through baptism.[1Pt 3:20–21] St. Hippolytus of Rome (died 235) sought to demonstrate that "the Ark was a symbol of the Christ who was expected", stating that the vessel had its door on the east side—the direction from which Christ would appear at the Second Coming—and that the bones of Adam were brought aboard, together with gold, frankincense, and myrrh (the symbols of the Nativity of Christ). Hippolytus furthermore stated that the Ark floated to and fro in the four directions on the waters, making the sign of the cross, before eventually landing on Mount Kardu "in the east, in the land of the sons of Raban, and the Orientals call it Mount Godash; the Armenians call it Ararat".[38] On a more practical plane, Hippolytus explained that the lowest of the three decks was for wild beasts, the middle for birds and domestic animals, and the top for humans. He says male animals were separated from females by sharp stakes to prevent breeding.[38] The early Church Father and theologian Origen (c. 182–251), in response to a critic who doubted that the Ark could contain all the animals in the world, argued that Moses, the traditional author of the book of Genesis, had been brought up in Egypt and would therefore have used the larger Egyptian cubit. He also fixed the shape of the Ark as a truncated pyramid, square at its base, and tapering to a square peak one cubit on a side; it was not until the 12th century that it came to be thought of as a rectangular box with a sloping roof.[39] Early Christian artists depicted Noah standing in a small box on the waves, symbolizing God saving the Christian Church in its turbulent early years. St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), in his work City of God, demonstrated that the dimensions of the Ark corresponded to the dimensions of the human body, which according to Christian doctrine is the body of Christ and in turn the body of the Church.[40] St. Jerome (c. 347–420) identified the raven, which was sent forth and did not return, as the "foul bird of wickedness" expelled by baptism;[41] more enduringly, the dove and olive branch came to symbolize the Holy Spirit and the hope of salvation and eventually, peace.[42] The olive branch remains a secular and religious symbol of peace today. The Quran and later Muslim works Main article: Noah in Islam Miniature from Hafiz-i Abru's Majma al-tawarikh. Noah's Ark Iran (Afghanistan), Herat; Timur's son Shah Rukh (1405–1447) ordered the historian Hafiz-i Abru to write a continuation of Rashid al-Din's famous history of the world, Jami al-tawarikh. Like the Il-Khanids, the Timurids were concerned with legitimizing their right to rule, and Hafiz-i Abru's A Collection of Histories covers a period that included the time of Shah Rukh himself. Noah's Ark and the deluge from Zubdat-al Tawarikh In contrast to the Jewish tradition, which uses a term that can be translated as a "box" or "chest" to describe the Ark, surah 29:15 of the Quran refers to it as a safina, an ordinary ship, and surah 54:13 describes the Ark as "a thing of boards and nails". Abd Allah ibn Abbas, a contemporary of Muhammad, wrote that Noah was in doubt as to what shape to make the Ark and that Allah revealed to him that it was to be shaped like a bird's belly and fashioned of teak wood.[43] Abdallah ibn 'Umar al-Baidawi, writing in the 13th century, explains that in the first of its three levels, wild and domesticated animals were lodged, in the second human beings, and the third birds. On every plank was the name of a prophet. Three missing planks, symbolizing three prophets, were brought from Egypt by Og, son of Anak, the only one of the giants permitted to survive the flood. The body of Adam was carried in the middle to divide the men from the women. Surah 11:41 says: "And he said, 'Ride ye in it; in the Name of Allah it moves and stays!'"; this was taken to mean that Noah said, "In the Name of Allah!" when he wished the Ark to move, and the same when he wished it to stand still.[citation needed] The medieval scholar Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn Masudi (died 956) wrote that Allah commanded the Earth to absorb the water, and certain portions which were slow in obeying received salt water in punishment and so became dry and arid. The water which was not absorbed formed the seas, so that the waters of the flood still exist. Masudi says the ark began its voyage at Kufa in central Iraq and sailed to Mecca, circling the Kaaba before finally traveling to Mount Judi, which surah 11:44 gives as its final resting place. This mountain is identified by tradition with a hill near the town of Jazirat ibn Umar on the east bank of the Tigris in the province of Mosul in northern Iraq, and Masudi says that the spot could be seen in his time.[33][34] The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge (1829), a painting by the American painter Thomas Cole Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith regards the Ark and the Flood as symbolic.[44] In Baháʼí belief, only Noah's followers were spiritually alive, preserved in the "ark" of his teachings, as others were spiritually dead.[45][46] The Baháʼí scripture Kitáb-i-Íqán endorses the Islamic belief that Noah had numerous companions on the ark, either 40 or 72, as well as his family, and that he taught for 950 (symbolic) years before the flood.[47] The Baháʼí Faith was founded in 19th century Persia, and it recognizes divine messengers from both the Abrahamic and the Indian traditions. Historicity The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica from 1771 describes the Ark as factual. It also attempts to explain how the Ark could house all living animal types: "... Buteo and Kircher have proved geometrically, that, taking the common cubit as a foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals supposed to be lodged in it ... the number of species of animals will be found much less than is generally imagined, not amounting to a hundred species of quadrupeds."[48] It also endorses a supernatural explanation for the flood, stating that "many attempts have been made to account for the deluge by means of natural causes: but these attempts have only tended to discredit philosophy, and to render their authors ridiculous."[49] The 1860 edition attempts to solve the problem of the Ark being unable to house all animal types by suggesting a local flood, which is described in the 1910 edition as part of a "gradual surrender of attempts to square scientific facts with a literal interpretation of the Bible" that resulted in "the 'higher criticism' and the rise of the modern scientific views as to the origin of species" leading to "scientific comparative mythology" as the frame in which Noah's Ark was interpreted by 1875.[50] Ark's geometry This engraving, made from carved sardonyx and gold, features a line of animals on the gangway to Noah's ark. It is based on a woodcut by the French illustrator Bernard Salomon.[51] From the Walters Art Museum. In Europe, the Renaissance saw much speculation on the nature of the Ark that might have seemed familiar to early theologians such as Origen and Augustine. At the same time, however, a new class of scholarship arose, one which, while never questioning the literal truth of the ark story, began to speculate on the practical workings of Noah's vessel from within a purely naturalistic framework. In the 15th century, Alfonso Tostada gave a detailed account of the logistics of the Ark, down to arrangements for the disposal of dung and the circulation of fresh air. The 16th-century geometer Johannes Buteo calculated the ship's internal dimensions, allowing room for Noah's grinding mills and smokeless ovens, a model widely adopted by other commentators.[42] Irving Finkel, a curator at the British Museum, came into the possession of a cunieform tablet. He translated it and discovered an hitherto unknown Babylonian version of the story of the great flood. This version gave specific measurements for an unusually large coracle (a type of rounded boat). His discovery lead to the production of a television documentary and a book summarizing the finding. A scale replica of the boat described by the tablet was built and floated in Kerala, India.[52] Searches for Noah's Ark Main article: Searches for Noah's Ark Searches for Noah's Ark have been made from at least the time of Eusebius (c.275–339 CE) to the present day. Today, the practice is widely regarded as pseudoarchaeology.[53][2][54] Various locations for the ark have been suggested but have never been confirmed.[55][56] Search sites have included Durupınar site, a site on Mount Tendürek in eastern Turkey and Mount Ararat, but geological investigation of possible remains of the ark has only shown natural sedimentary formations.[57] While biblical literalists maintain the Ark's existence in archaeological history, much of its scientific feasibility along with that of the deluge has been convincingly contested." (wikipedia.org) "Biscuit tins are utilitarian or decorative cans or containers used to package and sell biscuits (such as those served during tea) and some confectionery. They are commonly found in households in Great Britain, Ireland, and Commonwealth countries,[1] but also on continental Europe and French Canada. Popularity in the United States and English Canada spread later in the 20th century. Because of their attractive appearance, biscuit tins have often been used by charities and by some visitor attractions as fundraising devices many customers will happily pay more for a tin of biscuits than its worth.... History Biscuit tins are steel tins[4] with tin plate. This consists of steel sheets thinly coated with tin. The sheets are then bent to shape. By about 1850, Great Britain had become the dominant world supplier of tin plate, through a combination of technical innovation and political control over most of the suppliers of tin ore. Biscuit tin manufacture was a small but prestigious part of the vast industry of tin plate production, which saw a huge increase in demand in the 19th century was directly related to the growing industrialisation of food production, by increasingly sophisticated methods of preservation and the requirements made by changing methods of distribution. The British biscuit tin came about when the Licensed Grocer's Act of 1861 allowed groceries to be individually packaged and sold. Coinciding with the removal of the duty on paper for printed labels, printing directly on to tinplate became common. The new process of offset lithography, patented in 1877, allowed multicoloured designs to be printed on to exotically shaped tins. Biscuit tin "Kashmir" in the shape of a small Indian table by Huntley & Palmers, dated 1904 The earliest decorated biscuit tin was commissioned in 1868 by Huntley & Palmers from the London firm of De La Rue to a design by Owen Jones. Early methods of printing included the transfer process (essentially the method used to decorate porcelain and pottery since about 1750) and the direct lithographic process, which involved laying an inked stone directly on to a sheet of tin. Its disadvantage was that correct colour registration was difficult. The breakthrough in decorative tin plate production was the invention of the offset lithographic process. It consists of bringing a sheet of rubber into contact with the decorated stone, and then setting-off the impression so obtained upon the metal surface. The advantages over previous methods of printing were that any number of colours could be used, correctly positioned, and applied to an uneven surface if necessary. Thus the elaborately embossed, colourful designs that were such a feature of the late Victorian biscuit tin industry became technically possible. The most exotic designs were produced in the early years of the 20th century, just prior to the First World War. In the 1920s and 1930s, costs had risen substantially and the design of biscuit tins tended to be more conservative, with the exception of the tins targeted at the Christmas market and intended to appeal primarily to children. The designs generally reflected popular interests and tastes. The advent of the Second World War stopped all production of decorative tin ware and after it ended in 1945, the custom did not enjoy the same popularity as before. Vintage biscuit tins can be found in various museums and on the market have become collector items. Works of art for the home Biscuit tin in the shape of a Chinese vase by Huntley & Palmer Biscuit tins have always been more than just containers. The manufacturers aimed to make products which would be enjoyed beyond the life span of the biscuits themselves. Tins shaped like actual objects began to be made in the late 1890s. The earlier tins were shaped like baskets but gradually a whole range of fine art objects appeared. Biscuit tins were no longer aimed merely at children at the Christmas market. They had become useful and decorative parts of the middle class home. Replicas of Chinese vases could be used as such when the biscuits had been eaten. Boxes imitating porcelain, Wedgwood china or fine wooden boxes mimicked the wonderful objects found in grand houses or in museums. The First World War saw a break in the supply of decorated biscuit tins. Many manufacturers hesitated to resume production of "fancy" tins once the restrictions had been lifted. Children however had a strong influence on the market and ensured the survival of well designed, elaborately shaped tins. Shop biscuit tins British biscuit manufacturers supplied grocer's shops with biscuits packed into large tins, typically containing seven pounds (3.2 kilogrammes). These would be displayed in the shop, and the shopkeeper would weigh out the required amount of biscuits into a paper bag for each customer. Some tins had a glass panel in the lid, so that customers could see the biscuits inside." (wikipedia.org) "A tin box is a tinplate container. Tinplate metal is primarily steel with a very thin tin coating. Tin-free steel is also used. In some cultures, these boxes or cans are referred to as "tin boxes" or sometimes even "tins". Many “tin boxes” have hinged or removable lids or covers. Some people collect tin boxes as a hobby.... Cans Main article: biscuit tin These tinplate cans[2] are often used to package breath mints, throat lozenges, instant coffee, biscuits and holiday treats. Highly decorated "holiday tins" are sold during the holiday season and are popular gifts,[3] and often contain cookies, candy, or popcorn. Similar festive containers are used in Europe for sweets, biscuits, cakes and chocolates, mainly during Christmas, rather than in the summer holidays and in countries with British associations, they are usually called "biscuit tins". In Denmark, butter cookies in tins are produced and sold there, and are also exported to other countries.[4] These types of smaller tin boxes are sometimes reused to store items, or to create kits, such as a survival kit.[5] A hobby involves modifying tin boxes with decorations and embellishments.[6]     A cigar tin box     A bouillon cube tin can     A gingerbread container     A coffee or tea container     Display box with tinplate cans of mooncakes Construction Some types of metal tins or cans have hinged covers; Others cans have removable interference fit covers or lids.[7] The lid, which sometimes is hinged to the body of the container, is often held in place when closed by friction. In other cases, two protruding lugs can pass each other only when the lid and the rest of the box are deformed slightly: pressure from the user's hands is sufficient to produce this deformation, while the parts resist this somewhat, and are flexible enough to recover their normal shape when released. Collecting Some people collect these types of tin boxes. For example, Yvette Dardenne in Belgium has amassed a collection of approximately 56,800 tin boxes over two decades.[8] Boxes Several types of tinplate metal boxes are produced.     A metal toolbox     A tinplate ammunition box     A painted tinplate box used in construction as a Junction box     lunchbox Gift Boxes Some companies also use tinplate to make gift cans and boxes, like Candle tin, Coin bank, Christmas tin box, Easter egg tin etc.     Candle tin     Coin bank     Christmas tin box     Easter egg tin Trunks Large decorated tin trunks Trunks and chests are sometimes constructed of tinplate. These large boxes often have a hinged top cover and are sometimes highly decorated." (wikipedia.org) "A decorative box, or snuff box, is a form of packaging that is generally more than just functional, but also intended to be decorative and artistic. Many such boxes are used for promotional packaging, both commercially and privately. Historical objects are usually called caskets if larger than a few inches in more than one dimension, with only smaller ones called boxes.... Gift box Traditionally gift boxes used for promotional and seasonal gifts are made from sturdy paperboard or corrugated fiberboard. These boxes normally consist of a base and detachable lid and are made by using a die cutting process to cut the board. The box is then covered with decorative paper. Gift boxes can be dressed with other gift packaging material, such as decorative ribbons and gift tissue paper. Work box The most common type of decorative box is the feminine work box. It is usually fitted with a tray divided into many small compartments for needles, reels of silk and cotton, and other necessaries for stitchery. The date of its origin is unclear, but 17th-century examples exist, covered with silk and adorned with beads and embroidery. No lady would have been without her work box in the 18th century. In the second half of that century, elaborate pains were taken to make these boxes dainty and elegant. Work boxes are ordinarily portable, but at times they form the top of a stationary table. Jewelry box A jewel box lined with red velvet A jewelry box, also known as a casket, is a receptacle for trinkets, not only jewels. It may take a very modest form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may reach the monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which were made for Marie Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor Castle, and another at the Palace of Versailles; the work of Schwerdfeger as cabinetmaker, Degault as miniature-painter, and Thomire as chaser. Snuff box with a miniature portrait of King Léopold II from the collection of the King Baudouin Foundation Snuff box "Snuff box" redirects here. For the BBC3 comedy, see Snuff Box. For the anatomical location within the hand, see Anatomical snuff box. One of the more functional types of decorative boxes is the snuff box. Snuff boxes are made in pocket sizes – holding a few grammes for immediate consumption – and as larger, table boxes. Whilst snuff does not enjoy the popularity it once did, it is gradually re-gaining popularity due to the demonisation of smoking and snuff boxes are still made in surprising numbers. Since prolonged exposure to air causes snuff to dry out and lose its quality, pocket snuff boxes are designed to be nearly airtight containers with strong hinges, generally with enough space for only a day's worth of snuff .[1] Snuff boxes are made in two sizes, ones for the pocket and communal boxes made for table use. Pocket boxes are usually made to hold a small amount of snuff for immediate consumption. High-quality boxes have tightly-sealed lids to ensure that air does not penetrate the box, although wholly air-tight boxes are a rarity. Pocket boxes are intended to keep a day or two's supply. Table boxes are still to be found in the mess of certain old regiments – often in the traditional 'ram's head' style – and a communal snuff box is kept in the House of Commons in the UK parliament. Coffin-shaped snuff box made from sheet copper, raised, tinned inside and engraved. It is English and is dated 1792. Victoria and Albert Museum People of all social classes used these boxes when snuff was at its peak of popularity and the wealthy carried a variety of fancy snuff-boxes created by craftsmen in metal-work, jewellers and enamellers. Some of these were elaborately made and decorated, rich in detail and made from precious or expensive materials such as gold, silver and ivory and were often adorned with artwork, gems and precious stones.[2] Boxes made for the poorer snuff taker were more ordinary; popular and cheap boxes were made in papier-mâché and even potato-pulp, which made durable boxes that kept the snuff in good condition. Alloys that resembled gold or silver were developed in the 18th and 19th centuries such as the ersatz gold Pinchbeck and the silver look-alike, Sheffield Plate. Other popular materials used in making these boxes include:     Tortoise-shell, a favorite material owing to its satin lustre;     Mother-of-pearl, which was kept in its natural iridescent state, or gilded, or used together with silver; and     Exotic materials such as cowrie shells, enriched with enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones. The lids were often adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette, portrait miniature, hardstone inlays, or micromosaic panel. Some of the most expensive just used subtly different colours of gold. Perhaps the most widely used semi-precious metal was silver and snuffs of all shapes and sizes were made in that metal during snuff's great popularity. Even after snuff-taking ceased to be a general habit, the practice lingered among diplomats, doctors, lawyers and other professionals as well as members of professions where smoking was not possible, such as miners and print workers and snuff still has a considerable following, particularly amongst ex-smokers. Monarchs retained the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other intermediaries as a form of honor. As Talleyrand explained, the diplomatic corps found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to reflection in a business interview. At the coronation of George IV of the United Kingdom, Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid £8,205 for snuff-boxes for gifts to foreign representatives. Today snuff boxes are collected at many levels – the high-end of the market being reserved for gold boxes that have been jewelled or have original art work on them, or boxes with provenance linking them to world figures, such as Napoleon or Lord Nelson. Some of the most expensive are French and German 18th century examples, and the record auction price for a German box is £789,250 (about US$1.3 million), bid in 2003 at Christie's in London. Modern snuff boxes are made from a variety of woods, pewter and even plastic and are manufactured in surprising numbers due, largely, to snuff's resurgence amongst tobacco connoisseurs and ex-smokers. Sources     This section includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations. (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)     McCausland, Hugh (1951). Snuff and Snuff Boxes. Batchworth Press. ASIN B0000CHZOF.     Curtis, Matoon Monroe (1935). The Book of Snuff and Snuff Boxes. Bramhall House. ASIN B00086A96G. Strong box A strong box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities. Its place has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some have extremely elaborate locks, such as Sir Thomas Bodley's strong box in the Bodleian library, which has a locking mechanism in the under-side of the lid. Knife box In the Middle Ages people usually brought their own cutlery with them when eating away from home, and the more expensive types came with their own custom-made leather cases, stamped and embossed in various designs. Later, as cutlery became provided by the host, decorative cases, especially for the knives, were often left on display in the dining-room. Some of the most elegant and often ornate were in the styles of Robert Adam, George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton. Occasionally flat-topped containers, they were most frequently either rod-shaped, or tall and narrow with a sloping top necessitated by a series of raised veins for exhibiting the handles of knives and the bowls of spoons. Mahogany and satinwoods were most common, occasionally inlaid with marquetry, or edged with boxwood which was resistant to chipping. These receptacles, often made in pairs, still exist in large numbers; they are often converted into stationery cabinets. Another version is an open tray or rack, usually with a handle, also for the storage of table cutlery. Bible box A Bible box is a box made to hold a Bible. These boxes started being manufactured in the 17th century.[citation needed] Étui Further information: Toilet service An étui [fr][3] (from the French, for keeper or holder)[4] is a woman's ornamental case, usually carried in a pocket or purse. It holds small tools for daily use such as folding scissors, bodkins, sewing needles (a needlecase), hairpins, tweezers, makeup pencils, etc.[5] Some étuis were also used to carry doctors' lancets.[6] These boxes were made of different materials such as wood, leather, ivory, silver, gold, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, and shagreen. Fabergé created the Necessaire Egg as an étui. Wooden wine box Wooden wine boxes, also known as wooden wine crates, are used to ship and store expensive wines in transit and cellarage. Most wineries that use wooden boxes burn their logo and designs on the front panel. Originally intended as purely practical items, these panels or the whole box are often used by bars or wine collectors as decorative pieces for their bars or wine cellars. A typical wooden wine box holds either six or twelve 750 ml bottles." (wikipedia.org) "Potpourri /ˌpoʊpʊˈriː/ is a mixture of dried, naturally fragrant plant materials, used to provide a gentle natural scent, commonly in residential settings. It is often placed in a decorative bowl. The word "potpourri" comes into English from the French word pot-pourri. The French term has two connotations. It is the French name for a Spanish stew with a wide variety of ingredients called "olla podrida", a specialty of the city of Burgos. The word was taken and copied by the French military during the Napoleonic occupation of Burgos (1808–1813). The word pot in French has the same meaning as it does in English (and as olla does in Spanish), while the word pourri means rotten.... History Potpourri Vase Pot-pourri has been used in rooms since ancient times, in a variety of ways, including just scattering it on the floor. In early 17th-century France, fresh herbs and flowers were gathered—beginning in spring and continuing throughout the summer. The herbs were left for a day or two to become limp, then layered with coarse sea salt. The aging mixture was stirred occasionally as layers were added to it. Often the mixture would ferment or even mold as the summer went by. In fall, spices would be added to the unsightly grey mix until a pleasant fragrance was achieved. Then, scent preserving fixatives (see below) were added. The finished potpourri was set out in special pots with perforated lids to perfume rooms. Much modern potpourri consists of any decoratively shaped dried plant material (not necessarily from scented plants) with strong natural and synthetic perfumes (and often colored dyes) added, with the scent often bearing no relation to the plant material used. Sometimes, items that do not originate from plants are mixed in with the potpourri, to give it bulk and to make it more aesthetically pleasing. It is possible to spray scents onto potpourri, however, a fixative is needed so that the scent is absorbed for slow release. Generally, orris root is used for this purpose.[2] Lifespan Dried flowers can last anywhere from two months to 20 years, depending on the chosen blend. Properly made potpourri will last longer when stored in closed containers. Containers In ceramics manufacturing, a potpourri vase is specifically designed for holding potpourri. In the traditional designs, a potpourri container is provided with a pierced fitted lid, through which the scent may slowly diffuse. The porcelain Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship is one of the most spectacular examples from the 1750s and 1760s; Madame de Pompadour owned three of the twelve examples made, ten of which survived. Plants used A dried rose. Dried flowers are a common component of potpourris. There are many plant species that are used for potpourri. Researchers have identified 300 species from 95 families, including fungi and lichens. A few toxic ingredients have been found in fruits such as Strychnos nux-vomica, the strychnine tree. Naturally scented plants used in traditional potpourri include:[3]     allspice     cedar wood shavings (toxic, a moth repellent)     cinnamon bark and cassia bark (smells like cinnamon only less potent)     cloves     cypress wood shavings (toxic, another moth repellent)     fennel seed     incense-cedar wood shavings     jasmine flowers and oil     jujube flowers and blooms     juniper wood shavings (toxic, a moth repellent)     lavender leaves and flowers     lemon balm leaves and flowers     lemon peel     marjoram leaves and flowers     mignonette leaves and flowers     mint leaves and flowers     mugwort (toxic, adds a musky note to the mix, another moth repellent)     orange peel     pelargonium leaves from the scented varieties     pinyon pine shavings and cones     rose flowers, hips, or oil     rosemary leaves and flowers" (wikipedia.org) "An illustration is a decoration, interpretation or visual explanation of a text, concept or process,[1] designed for integration in print and digital published media, such as posters, flyers, magazines, books, teaching materials, animations, video games and films. An illustration is typically created by an illustrator. Digital illustrations are often used to make websites and apps more user-friendly, such as the use of emojis to accompany digital type.[2] Illustration also means providing an example; either in writing or in picture form. The origin of the word "illustration" is late Middle English (in the sense ‘illumination; spiritual or intellectual enlightenment’): via Old French from Latin illustratio(n-), from the verb illustrare.... Illustration styles "Illustration beats explanation" Western Engraving & Colortype Co. (1916) The White Rabbit from Alice in Wonderland, illustrated by John Tenniel (1820–1914) Contemporary illustration uses a wide range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia, 3D modelling. Depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. Specialist areas[4] include:     Architectural illustration     Archaeological illustration     Botanical illustration     Concept art     Fashion illustration     Information graphics     Technical illustration     Medical illustration     Narrative illustration     Picture books     Scientific illustration Technical and scientific illustration Exploded-view diagram of a gear pump (c 2007) Cutaway drawing of the Nash 600, an American automobile of the 1940s (1942) Illustrations of various insects, drawn in 1833 by J. Tastu Technical and scientific illustration communicates information of a technical or scientific nature. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, diagrams. The aim is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer".[5] Technical and scientific illustration is generally designed to describe or explain subjects to a nontechnical audience, so must provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding".[6] In contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. Illustration as fine art Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies Dancing by William Blake (1786) In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design and fine art. Today, however, due in part to the growth of graphic novel and video game industries, as well as increased use of illustration in magazines and other publications, illustration is now becoming a valued art form, capable of engaging a global market. Original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwell's painting "Breaking Home Ties" sold in a 2006 Sotheby's auction for US$15.4 million.[7] Many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. History An engraving by Georgius Agricola or Georg Bauer (1494–1555), illustrating the mining practice of fire-setting Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the industrial processes of printing and publishing. Early history The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were individually hand drawn and painted. With the invention of the printing press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed, often illustrated with woodcuts. Some of the earliest illustrations come from the time of ancient Egypt (Khemet) often as hieroglyph. A classic example of illustrations exists from the time of The Tomb of Pharaoh Seti I, circa 1294 BC to 1279 BC,who was father of Ramses II, born 1303 BC. 1600s Japan saw the origination of Ukiyo-e, an influential illustration style characterised by expressive line, vivid colour and subtle tones, resulting from the ink-brushed wood block printing technique. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life. Hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching. In 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake (1757–827), who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality. 19th century In Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and "serious" publications. At this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. The British humorous magazine Punch (1841–2002) built on the success of Cruikshank's Comic Almanac (1827–1840) and employed many well-regarded illustrators, including Sir John Tenniel, the Dalziel Brothers, and Georges du Maurier. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators. Historically, Punch was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s. The magazine was the first to use the term "cartoon" to describe a humorous illustration and its widespread use led to John Leech being known as the world's first "cartoonist".[8] In common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from reliance on caricature to sophisticated topical observation. The "Golden Age" From the early 1800s newspapers, mass-market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color and rendering techniques. These developments in printing effected all areas of literature from cookbooks, photography and travel guides, as well as children's books. Also, due to advances in printing, it became more affordable to produce color photographs within books and other materials.[9] By 1900, almost 100 percent of paper was machine-made, and while a person working by hand could produce 60-100lbs of paper per day, mechanization yielded around 1,000lbs per day.[10] Additionally, in the 50-year period between 1846 and 1916, book production increased 400% and the price of books was cut in half.[10] In America, this led to a "golden age of illustration" from before the 1880s until the early 20th century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time.[11] Among the best-known illustrators of that period were N.C. Wyeth and Howard Pyle of the Brandywine School, James Montgomery Flagg, Elizabeth Shippen Green, J. C. Leyendecker, Violet Oakley, Maxfield Parrish, Jessie Willcox Smith, and John Rea Neill. " (wikipedia.org) "The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books") is a collection of religious texts, writings, or scriptures sacred to Jews, Samaritans, Christians, Rastafaris, and others. It appears in the form of an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms that are all linked by the belief that they are collectively revelations of God. These texts include theologically-focused historical accounts, hymns, prayers, proverbs, parables, didactic letters, admonitions, essays, poetry, and prophecies. Believers also generally consider the Bible to be a product of divine inspiration. Those books that are included in the Bible by a tradition or group are called canonical, indicating that the tradition/group views the collection as the true representation of God's word and will. A number of biblical canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents from denomination to denomination.[1] The Hebrew Bible shares most of its content with its ancient Greek translation, the Septuagint, which in turn was the base for the Christian Old Testament. The Christian New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about what should be included in the canon, primarily about the biblical apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect or recognition. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ among Christian groups. Roman Catholics, High Church Anglicans, Methodists and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of both the Bible and sacred tradition,[2][3] while many Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept rose to prominence during the Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only infallible source of Christian teaching. Others, though, advance the concept of prima scriptura in contrast, meaning scripture primarily or scripture mainly.[2] The Bible has had a profound influence on literature and history, especially in the Western world, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type.[4][5] According to the March 2007 edition of Time, the Bible "has done more to shape literature, history, entertainment, and culture than any book ever written. Its influence on world history is unparalleled, and shows no signs of abating."[4] With estimated total sales of over five billion copies, it is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time.[4][6][7] As of the 2000s, it sells approximately 100 million copies annually.... Etymology The English word Bible is derived from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, romanized: ta biblia, meaning "the books" (singular βιβλίον, biblion).[10] The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures" and they referred to them as "holy", or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible" (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ).[11] The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books")[12] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books" (the Septuagint).[13][14] Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE. The biblical scholar F. F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[15] Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe.[16] Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια tà biblía tà hágia, "the holy books".[17] Development See also: Authorship of the Bible and Dating the Bible The Bible is not a single book but a collection of books, whose complex development is not completely understood. The books began as songs and stories orally transmitted from generation to generation before being written down in a process that began sometime around the start of the first millennium BCE and continued for over a thousand years. The Bible was written and compiled by many people, from a variety of disparate cultures, most of whom are unknown.[18] British biblical scholar John K. Riches wrote:[19]     [T]he biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers – political, cultural, economic, and ecological – varied enormously. There are texts which reflect a nomadic existence, texts from people with an established monarchy and Temple cult, texts from exile, texts born out of fierce oppression by foreign rulers, courtly texts, texts from wandering charismatic preachers, texts from those who give themselves the airs of sophisticated Hellenistic writers. It is a time-span which encompasses the compositions of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Thucydides, Sophocles, Caesar, Cicero, and Catullus. It is a period which sees the rise and fall of the Assyrian empire (twelfth to seventh century) and of the Persian empire (sixth to fourth century), Alexander's campaigns (336–326), the rise of Rome and its domination of the Mediterranean (fourth century to the founding of the Principate, 27 BCE), the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple (70 CE), and the extension of Roman rule to parts of Scotland (84 CE). Hebrew Bible from 1300. page 20, Genesis. Hebrew Bible from 1300. Genesis. Considered to be scriptures (sacred, authoritative religious texts), the books were compiled by different religious communities into various biblical canons (official collections of scriptures). The earliest compilation, containing the first five books of the Bible and called the Torah (meaning "law", "instruction", or "teaching") or Pentateuch ("five books"), was accepted as Jewish canon by the fifth century BCE. A second collection of narrative histories and prophesies, called the Nevi'im ("prophets"), was canonized in the third century BCE. A third collection called the Ketuvim ("writings"), containing psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories, was canonized sometime between the second century BCE and the second century CE. These three collections were written mostly in Hebrew, with some parts in Aramaic, and together form the Hebrew Bible or "TaNaKh" (a portmanteau of "Torah", "Nevi'im", and "Ketuvim").[20] Greek-speaking Jews in Alexandria and elsewhere in the Jewish diaspora considered additional scriptures, composed between 200 BCE and 100 CE and not included in the Hebrew Bible, to be canon. These additional texts were included in a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek (common Greek spoken by ordinary people) known as the Septuagint (meaning "the work of the seventy"), which began as a translation of the Torah made around 250 BCE and continued to develop for several centuries. The Septuagint contained all of the books of the Hebrew Bible, re-organized and with some textual differences, with the additional scriptures interspersed throughout.[21] Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th-century painting. During the rise of Christianity in the first century CE, new scriptures were written in Greek about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who Christians believed was the messiah prophesized in the books of the Hebrew Bible. Two collections of these new scriptures – the Pauline epistles and the Gospels – were accepted as canon by the end of the second century CE. A third collection, the catholic epistles, were canonized over the next few centuries. Christians called these new scriptures the "New Testament", and began referring to the Septuagint as the "Old Testament".[22] Between 385 and 405 CE, the early Christian church translated its canon into Vulgar Latin (the common Latin spoken by ordinary people), a translation known as the Vulgate, which included in its Old Testament the books that were in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. The Vulgate introduced stability to the Bible, but also began the East-West Schism between Latin-speaking Western Christianity (led by the Catholic Church) and multi-lingual Eastern Christianity (led by the Eastern Orthodox Church). Christian denominations' biblical canons varied not only in the language of the books, but also in their selection, organization, and text.[23] Jewish rabbis began developing a standard Hebrew Bible in the first century CE, maintained since the middle of the first millennium by the Masoretes, and called the Masoretic Text. Christians have held ecumenical councils to standardize their biblical canon since the fourth century CE. The Council of Trent (1545–63), held by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, authorized the Vulgate as its official Latin translation of the Bible. The Church deemed the additional books in its Old Testament that were interspersed among the Hebrew Bible books to be "deuterocanonical" (meaning part of a second or later canon). Protestant Bibles either separated these books into a separate section called the "Apocrypha" (meaning "hidden away") between the Old and New Testaments, or omitted them altogether. The 17th century Protestant King James Version was the most ubiquitous English Bible of all time, but it has largely been superseded by modern translations.[24] Textual history The books of the Bible were written and copied by hand, initially on papyrus scrolls. No originals survive, and the oldest existing scrolls are copies that were made centuries after the books were first written. The copies contained both errors and intentional changes, resulting in different versions of the books in circulation, ultimately diverging into distinct lineages, called "text families" or "text types". Over time, the individual scrolls were gathered into collections, but these collections had different scrolls, and different versions of the same scrolls, with no standard organization. By the 3rd century CE, scrolls were supplanted by early bound books called codexes, and collections of biblical books began being copied as a set.[25] The Isaiah scroll, which is a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah. It dates from the 2nd century BCE. More than 220 Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in Qumran in 1947, which date between 250 BCE and 100 CE, are the oldest existing copies of the books of the Hebrew Bible of any considerable length. The Qumran scrolls attest to many different biblical text types. In addition to the Qumran scrolls, there are three major manuscript witnesses (historical copies) of the Hebrew Bible: the Septuagint, the Masoretic Text, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Existing complete copies of the Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, date from the third to the fifth centuries CE, with fragments dating back to the second century BCE. The Masoretic Text is a standardized version of the Hebrew Bible that began to be developed in the first century CE and has been maintained by the Masoretes since the latter half of the first millennium CE. Its oldest complete copy in existence is the Leningrad Codex, dating to c. 1000 CE. The Samaritan Pentateuch is a version of the Torah maintained by the Samaritan community since antiquity and rediscovered by European scholars in the 17th century; the oldest existing copies date to c. 1100 CE.[26] There are about 3,000 existing New Testament manuscripts, copied between the 2nd and 17th centuries. The manuscripts include papyri, over a hundred of which have been discovered in Egypt since 1890; about 300 great uncial codices, which are vellum or parchment books written in block Greek letters, mostly dating between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE; and about 2,900 minuscules, written in a cursive style (using connected letters) that superseded uncials beginning in the 9th century. These manuscripts differ in varying degrees from one another and are grouped according to their similarities into textual families or lineages; the four most commonly recognized are Alexandrian, Western, Caesarean, and Byzantine.[27] Hebrew Bible Tanakh Joshua 1:1 as recorded in the Aleppo Codex Torah  (Instruction) Nevi'im  (Prophets) Ketuvim  (Writings)     vte Main article: Development of the Hebrew Bible canon The Nash Papyrus (2nd century BCE) contains a portion of a pre-Masoretic Text, specifically the Ten Commandments and the Shema Yisrael prayer. The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible. It defines the books of the Jewish canon, and also the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation. The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE,[28] and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century. The term "Keter" (crown, from the Arabic, taj) originally referred to this particular manuscript, Over the years, the term Keter came to refer to any full text of the Hebrew Bible, or significant portion of it, bound as a codex (not a scroll) and including vowel points, cantillation marks, and Masoretic notes. Medieval handwritten manuscripts were considered extremely precise, the most authoritative documents from which to copy other texts.[29] The name Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ"ך‎) reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ("Teaching"), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings"). Torah Main article: Torah See also: Oral Torah A Torah scroll recovered from Glockengasse Synagogue in Cologne. The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases".[30] Traditionally these books were considered to have been written almost entirely by Moses himself.[31] In the 19th century, Julius Wellhausen and other scholars proposed that the Torah had been compiled from earlier written documents dating from the 9th to the 5th century BCE, the "documentary hypothesis".[31] Scholars Hermann Gunkel and Martin Noth, building on the form criticism of Gerhard von Rad, refined this hypothesis, while other scholars have proposed other ways that the Torah might have developed over the centuries.[31] Samaritan Inscription containing portion of the Bible in nine lines of Hebrew text, currently housed in the British Museum The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:     Genesis, Beresheeth (בראשית)     Exodus, Shemot (שמות)     Leviticus, Vayikra (ויקרא)     Numbers, Bamidbar (במדבר)     Deuteronomy, Devarim (דברים) The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob's children, the "Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at biblical Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.[32] The commandments in the Torah provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot). Nevi'im Main article: Nevi'im Books of Nevi'im   Former Prophets     Joshua Judges Samuel Kings Latter Prophets (major)     Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Latter Prophets (Twelve minor)     Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Hebrew Bible     vte Nevi'im (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים‎, romanized: Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים‎, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים‎, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets). The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God"[33] (Yahweh) and believers in foreign gods,[34][35] and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers;[36][37][38] in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Former Prophets The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:     Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua),     the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges),     the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the Books of Samuel)     the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (Books of Kings) Latter Prophets The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major" prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:     Hosea, Hoshea (הושע)     Joel, Yoel (יואל)     Amos, Amos (עמוס)     Obadiah, Ovadyah (עבדיה)     Jonah, Yonah (יונה)     Micah, Mikhah (מיכה)     Nahum, Nahum (נחום)     Habakkuk, Havakuk (חבקוק)     Zephaniah, Tsefanya (צפניה)     Haggai, Khagay (חגי)     Zechariah, Zekharyah (זכריה)     Malachi, Malakhi (מלאכי) Ketuvim Main article: Ketuvim Books of the Ketuvim   Three poetic books     Psalms Proverbs Job Five Megillot (Scrolls)     Song of Songs Ruth Lamentations Ecclesiastes Esther Other books     Daniel         Ezra–Nehemiah (EzraNehemiah)     Chronicles Hebrew Bible     vte Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים‎ "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[39] The poetic books Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1–2 In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth"). These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system. The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot) The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.[40] Other books Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:     Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).     The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.     Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic. Order of the books The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot. The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)     Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים     Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי     Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)     Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשִׁירִים (Passover)     Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth)     Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.]     Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth)     Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm) Other books     Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל     ‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא     Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[41] In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[42] Canonization The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.[40] Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[43] References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE. Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."[44] For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[45] Original languages The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28)[46] written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.[47] Samaritan Pentateuch Main article: Samaritan Pentateuch Samaritans include only the Pentateuch in their biblical canon.[48] They do not recognize divine authorship or inspiration in any other book in the Jewish Tanakh.[49] A Samaritan Book of Joshua partly based upon the Tanakh's Book of Joshua exists, but Samaritans regard it as a non-canonical secular historical chronicle.[50] Septuagint Main article: Septuagint Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of uncial book from 1 Esdras in the Codex Vaticanus c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and English translation. The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE,[51][52][53] initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well.[54] It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.[55] As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Septuagint expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.[56] Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.[citation needed] Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.[57] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[53][58] Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).[59] The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.[60] The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[61] Incorporations from Theodotion In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text.[citation needed] The original Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened."[62] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.[63] The canonical Ezra–Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra–Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" – the canonical Ezra–Nehemiah – is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[62] Final form Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151. Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων – things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[63] The Orthodox Old Testament[54][64][a]     Greek-based name     Conventional English name Law Γένεσις     Génesis     Genesis Ἔξοδος     Éxodos     Exodus Λευϊτικόν     Leuitikón     Leviticus Ἀριθμοί     Arithmoí     Numbers Δευτερονόμιον     Deuteronómion     Deuteronomy History Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ     Iêsous Nauê     Joshua Κριταί     Kritaí     Judges Ῥούθ     Roúth     Ruth Βασιλειῶν Αʹ[b]     I Reigns     I Samuel Βασιλειῶν Βʹ     II Reigns     II Samuel Βασιλειῶν Γʹ     III Reigns     I Kings Βασιλειῶν Δʹ     IV Reigns     II Kings Παραλειπομένων Αʹ     I Paralipomenon[c]     I Chronicles Παραλειπομένων Βʹ     II Paralipomenon     II Chronicles Ἔσδρας Αʹ     I Esdras     1 Esdras Ἔσδρας Βʹ     II Esdras     Ezra–Nehemiah Τωβίτ[d]     Tobit     Tobit or Tobias Ἰουδίθ     Ioudith     Judith Ἐσθήρ     Esther     Esther with additions Μακκαβαίων Αʹ     I Makkabaioi     1 Maccabees Μακκαβαίων Βʹ     II Makkabaioi     2 Maccabees Μακκαβαίων Γʹ     III Makkabaioi     3 Maccabees Wisdom Ψαλμοί     Psalms     Psalms Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ     Psalm 151     Psalm 151 Προσευχὴ Μανάσση     Prayer of Manasseh     Prayer of Manasseh Ἰώβ     Iōb     Job Παροιμίαι     Proverbs     Proverbs Ἐκκλησιαστής     Ekklesiastes     Ecclesiastes Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων     Song of Songs     Song of Solomon or Canticles Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος     Wisdom of Solomon     Wisdom Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ     Wisdom of Jesus the son of Seirach     Sirach or Ecclesiasticus Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος     Psalms of Solomon     Psalms of Solomon[65] Prophets Δώδεκα     The Twelve     Minor Prophets Ὡσηέ Αʹ     I. Osëe     Hosea Ἀμώς Βʹ     II. Amōs     Amos Μιχαίας Γʹ     III. Michaias     Micah Ἰωήλ Δʹ     IV. Ioël     Joel Ὀβδίου Εʹ[e]     V. Obdias     Obadiah Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'     VI. Ionas     Jonah Ναούμ Ζʹ     VII. Naoum     Nahum Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ     VIII. Ambakum     Habakkuk Σοφονίας Θʹ     IX. Sophonias     Zephaniah Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ     X. Angaios     Haggai Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ     XI. Zacharias     Zachariah Ἄγγελος ΙΒʹ     XII. Messenger     Malachi Ἠσαΐας     Hesaias     Isaiah Ἱερεμίας     Hieremias     Jeremiah Βαρούχ     Baruch     Baruch Θρῆνοι     Lamentations     Lamentations Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου     Epistle of Jeremiah     Letter of Jeremiah Ἰεζεκιήλ     Iezekiêl     Ezekiel Δανιήλ     Daniêl     Daniel with additions Appendix Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα     IV Makkabees     4 Maccabees[f] Christian Bibles Part of a series on Christianity Principal symbol of Christianity     JesusChrist     BibleFoundations Theology     HistoryTradition     DenominationsGroups Related topics Christian cross Christianity portal     vte Main articles: Biblical canon and List of English Bible translations A page from the Gutenberg Bible A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books. Significant versions of the Christian Bible in English include the Douay–Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, the New American Bible, and the English Standard Version. Old Testament Main article: Old Testament The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholic and Orthodox traditions have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.[citation needed] The Old Testament consists of many distinct books produced over a period of centuries: The first five books – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy – reached their present form in the Persian period (538–332 BCE), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time.[66] The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BCE.[67] These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve "minor prophets" – were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom" books – Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon – have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332–198 BCE), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th century BCE; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BCE.[68] Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books The contents page in a complete 80 book King James Bible, listing "The Books of the Old Testament", "The Books called Apocrypha", and "The Books of the New Testament". In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages.[citation needed] Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text.[citation needed] They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[69][70] A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545–1563.[71][72] It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.[73] Eighty book Protestant Bibles have fourteen books in between the Old Testament and New Testament in a section called the Apocrypha.[74][75] Protestant traditions traditionally teach that these books are useful for instruction, but are non-canonical.[74][75] However, Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament and the Roman Catholic Church most of them with the exception of three books.[74][75] The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[76]     Tobit     Judith     1 Maccabees     2 Maccabees     Wisdom     Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)     Baruch     The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)     Greek Additions to Esther (Book of Esther, chapters 10:4–12:6)     The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children verses 1–68 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3, verses 24–90)     Susanna (Book of Daniel, chapter 13)     Bel and the Dragon (Book of Daniel, chapter 14) In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:[citation needed]     3 Maccabees     1 Esdras     Prayer of Manasseh     Psalm 151 Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:[citation needed]     2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.[citation needed] The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:[citation needed]     Psalms 151–155     The Apocalypse of Baruch     The Letter of Baruch The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:[citation needed]     Jubilees     Enoch     1–3 Meqabyan and some other books. The Revised Common Lectionary of the Lutheran Church, Moravian Church, Reformed Churches, Anglican Church and Methodist Church uses the Apocryphal Books liturgically, with alternative Old Testament readings available.[77] Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Lutheran Church and Anglican Church include the fourteen books of the Protestant Apocrypha, many of which are the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.[78][self-published source] Pseudepigraphal books Main article: Pseudepigrapha The term pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented or questionable. The Old Testament pseudepigraphal works include the following:[79]     3 Maccabees     4 Maccabees     Assumption of Moses     Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)     Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)     Hebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")     Book of Jubilees     Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)     Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek)     Life of Adam and Eve     Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah     Psalms of Solomon     Sibylline Oracles     Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)     Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Book of Enoch Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.[80] However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.[81] Denominational views of pseudepigrapha There arose[when?] in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter further, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are apocryphal are otherwise considered genuine.[clarification needed] Role of the Old Testament in Christian theology Further information: Sola scriptura and Christian theology The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures."[82] He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3:15), and as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfilment in Jesus himself, generating the "new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.[83] New Testament Main article: Development of the New Testament canon The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure. The term "New Testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy among Christians over whether the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament.[84] Some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the New Testament and relegated to the collections known as the Apostolic Fathers (generally considered orthodox) and the New Testament Apocrypha (including both orthodox and heretical works). The New Testament is a collection of 27 books[85] of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into: The Gospels     Synoptic Gospels         Gospel According to Matthew         Gospel According to Mark         Gospel According to Luke     Gospel According to John Narrative literature, account and history of the Apostolic age     Acts of the Apostles Pauline Epistles     Epistle to the Romans     First Epistle to the Corinthians     Second Epistle to the Corinthians     Epistle to the Galatians     Epistle to the Ephesians     Epistle to the Philippians     Epistle to the Colossians     First Epistle to the Thessalonians     Second Epistle to the Thessalonians Pastoral epistles     First Epistle to Timothy     Second Epistle to Timothy     Epistle to Titus     Epistle to Philemon     Epistle to the Hebrews General epistles, also called catholic meaning general epistles     Epistle of James     First Epistle of Peter     Second Epistle of Peter     First Epistle of John     Second Epistle of John     Third Epistle of John     Epistle of Jude Apocalyptic literature, also called Prophetical     Revelation, or the Apocalypse The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Orthodox/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition. Original language See also: Language of the New Testament The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek,[86][87] which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean[88][89][90][91] from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600). Historic editions See also: Biblical manuscript and Textual criticism An early German translation by Martin Luther. His translation of the text into the vernacular was highly influential. The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived.[92] But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text – especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line – and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts. Development of the Christian canons Main articles: Development of the Old Testament canon and Development of the New Testament canon St. Jerome in his Study, by Marinus van Reymerswaele, 1541. Jerome produced a 4th-century Latin edition of the Bible, known as the Vulgate, that became the Catholic Church's official translation. The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity[vague] subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or 54-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight, it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon – the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division – while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Eighty book Protestant Bibles include 14 books called Apocrypha in between the Old Testament and the New Testament that are deemed useful for instruction but non-canonical.[75][93] [74] Both Catholics and Protestants (as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.[94] The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3:16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God".[12] Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church. Ethiopian Orthodox canon Main article: Ethiopian Biblical canon The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.[95] The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament,[citation needed] also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.[citation needed] Peshitta Main article: Peshitta The Peshitta (Classical Syriac: ܦܫܺܝܛܬܳܐ‎ or ܦܫܝܼܛܬܵܐ pšīṭtā) is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition. The consensus within biblical scholarship, although not universal, is that the Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated into Syriac from biblical Hebrew, probably in the 2nd century AD, and that the New Testament of the Peshitta was translated from the Greek.[96] This New Testament, originally excluding certain disputed books (2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation), had become a standard by the early 5th century. The five excluded books were added in the Harklean Version (616 AD) of Thomas of Harqel.[97][98][99] Divine inspiration Main articles: Biblical inspiration, Biblical literalism, Biblical infallibility, and Biblical inerrancy A Bible is placed centrally on a Lutheran altar, highlighting its importance The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". (2 Timothy 3:16)[100] Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:     the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible[101]     the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters     the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[83] Fundamentalist Christians are associated[by whom?] with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.[102] Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts,[103][104] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.[105] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."[106] Most evangelical biblical scholars[107][108][109] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture.[110] Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular version.[111] Versions and translations Further information: Bible translations and List of Bible translations by language Title page from the first Welsh translation of the Bible, 1588. William Morgan (1545–1604) The original texts of the Tanakh were almost entirely written in Hebrew; about one per cent is written in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.[citation needed] The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament. The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (also known as the Gelasian Decree), thought to be of a 6th-century document[112][113] of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority (variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I, Pope Damasus I, or Pope Hormisdas)[114][115][116] but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period,[117] the Council of Rome in 382 CE under Pope Damasus I (366–383) assembled a list of books of the Bible. Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the fourth century CE (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical).[118][119] In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church. Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies. Bible translations, worldwide (as of October 2020)[120] Number     Statistic 7,360     Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today 2,731     Number of translations into new languages in progress 1,551     Number of languages with a translation of the New Testament 704     Number of languages with a translation of the Bible (Protestant Canon) Views John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:     It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty. ... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.[121] Other religions Main article: Islamic view of the Christian Bible In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to correct this deviation.[122] Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible. For example, Rastafaris view the Bible as essential to their religion[123] and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts".[124] Biblical studies Main articles: Biblical studies and Biblical criticism Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.[125] Higher criticism Main articles: Higher criticism and Lower criticism In the 17th century, Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses ..."[126] Archaeological and historical research Main articles: Biblical archaeology school, Historicity of the Bible, and Religiously motivated pseudoarchaeology Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures (or the New Testament). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history. The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.[127][128] Bible museums     The Dunham Bible Museum is located in Houston, Texas. It is known for its collection of rare Bibles from around the world and for having many different Bibles of various languages.[129]     The Museum of the Bible opened in Washington, D.C. in November 2017.[130] The museum states that its intent is to "share the historical relevance and significance of the sacred scriptures in a nonsectarian way", but this has been questioned.[131][132]     The Bible Museum in St Arnaud, Victoria, Australia opened in 2009.[133] As of 2020, it is closed for relocation.[134]     There is a Bible Museum at The Great Passion Play in Eureka Springs, Arkansas.[135][136]     The Bible Museum on the Square in Collierville, Tennessee opened in 1997.[137][138]     Biedenharn Museum and Gardens in Monroe, Louisiana includes a Bible Museum.[139] Gallery     Bibles     Old Bible from a Greek monastery     Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from Wien (Austria), c 1500.     The Kennicott Bible, 1476     A Baroque Bible     The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inauguration in 1861     American Civil War Era Illustrated Bible     A miniature Bible     1866 Victorian Bible     Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell Memorial Library     Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Annunciation (c. 1472–1475) shows the Virgin Mary reading the Bible. Illustrations The grandest medieval Bibles were illuminated manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk."[140] By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[141] Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.[142] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.[143] The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the illuminator."[140] In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation."" (wikipedia.org)
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  • Size: Medium
  • Item Height: 2 in
  • Item Width: 6.5 in
  • Pattern: No Pattern
  • Type: Art
  • Color: Blue
  • Year Manufactured: 1994
  • Collection: Animals
  • Brand: Potpourri Designs
  • Original/Reproduction: Original
  • Time Period Manufactured: 1990-1999
  • Era: Late 20th Century (1970-1999)
  • Shape: Round
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  • Country/Region of Manufacture: China
  • Style: American
  • Material: Tin
  • Theme: Animals & Dinosaurs, Animation, Nautical, Religious, Transportation
  • Features: Textured Finish
  • Subject: Bible
  • Finish: Textured
  • Item Length: 6.5 in
  • Mfg #: 201131

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