SOLID SILVER COIN Three pence 1891 Victorian Antique Great Britain Royal Mint UK

$2.78 5 Bids 3d 11h 21m 5s, $6.30 Shipping, 30-Day Returns, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (3,236) 99.7%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 266732658605 SOLID SILVER COIN Three pence 1891 Victorian Antique Great Britain Royal Mint UK.
1891 Three Pence Coin British Threepence Coin from 1891 from the Reign of Queen Victoria Solid 0.925 Silver In Good Condition given it is almost over one hundred years old Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake   Click Here to Check out my other Antique Items!       Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 1,000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together I always combined postage on multiple items All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. 

Overseas Bidders Please Note Surface Mail Delivery Times > 

Western Europe takes up to 2 weeks, 

Eastern Europe up to 5 weeks, 

North America up to 6 weeks, 

South America, Africa and Asia up to 8 weeks and 

Australasia up to 12 weeks

Also if bidding from overseas and you want your item tracked please select the International Signed for Postage Option

For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain!

DO NOT CLICK HERE!

Click Here to Add me to Your List of Favourite Sellers

If You Have any Questions Please Message me through ebay and  I Will Reply ASAP

Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 

I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL)  * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL)  * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL)  * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL)  * Sint Maarten (NL)  * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra

Victoria Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882 Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882 Queen of the United Kingdom Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation 28 June 1838 Predecessor William IV Successor Edward VII Empress of India Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877 Predecessor Position established Successor Edward VII Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial 4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ​(m. 1840; died 1861)​ Issue Victoria, Princess Royal Edward VII Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Princess Helena of the United Kingdom Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom House Hanover Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Religion Protestant[a] Signature Cursive signature of Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days was longer than that of any previous British monarch and is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Victoria's father, Prince Edward Victoria as a child with her mother, after William Beechey Victoria, aged four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niece Princess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter of George, Prince Regent (who would become George IV). Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[b] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother, the Prince Regent.[2] At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821.[4] Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887 Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[c] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Victoria wears her crown and holds a sceptre. Coronation portrait by George Hayter At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68] Years with Albert Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, Victoria, Princess Royal, c. 1845[74] In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Victoria's British prime ministers Year Prime Minister (party) 1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative) 1846 Lord John Russell (W) 1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C) 1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 1858 Earl of Derby (C) 1859 Viscount Palmerston (L) 1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L)  1866 Earl of Derby (C) 1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L) 1874 Benj. Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C)   1880 William Gladstone (L) 1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L) 1886 (July) Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1892 William Gladstone (L) 1894 Earl of Rosebery (L) 1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and overseas premiers Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years.[102] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[103] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[104] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[105] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[106] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[107] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[108] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[109] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Photograph by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[110] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[111] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[112] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[113] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[114] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[115] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[116] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[117] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[118] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[119] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[120] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[121] Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[122] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[123] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[124] Victoria on a horse Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[125] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[126] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[127] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[128] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[129] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[130] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[131] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[132] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[133] In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[134] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[135] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[136] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[137] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[138] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[139] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[140] On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[141] and a birching.[142] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[143] Empress Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[144] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[145] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[146] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[146] Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[147] In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[148] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[149] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[150] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[151] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[152] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[153] Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[154] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[155] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[156] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[157] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[158] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[159] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[160] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[161] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[162] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[163] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[164] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[165] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[166] The manuscript was destroyed.[167] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[168] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[169] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[170] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[171] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[172] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[173] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[174] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[175] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[176] Two days later on 23 June,[177] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[178][179][180] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[181] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[182] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[183] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[184] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[185] Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[186] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[187] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[188] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria's official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[189] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[190] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[191] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[192] The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[193] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[194] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[195] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[196] Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[197] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[198] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[199] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[200] Her eldest son, Albert Edward, succeeded her as Edward VII. Edward and his nephew Wilhelm II were at Victoria's deathbed.[201] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[202] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[203] On 25 January, her sons Edward and Arthur and her grandson Wilhelm helped lift her body into the coffin.[204] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[205] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][206] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[207] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[208] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][209] and she denied doing so.[210] Her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[211] According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[212] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[213] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[214] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[215] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[216] Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[217] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[218] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][219] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[220] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[221] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[222] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected a decade after her death. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[223] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[224] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[225] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[226] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Charles III of the United Kingdom; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain. The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[227] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[228] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[229] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[230] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[231] Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232] Honours British honours Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233] Founder of the Victoria Cross 5 February 1856[234] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[235] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[236] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[237] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[238] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[239] Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[240] Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[241] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[242] Foreign honours Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[243] Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[244] Portugal: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[245] Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa[244] Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[246] France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[247] Mexico/Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[248] Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of San Carlos, 1866[249] Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[250] Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[251] Persia:[252] Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873 Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873 Siam: Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[253] Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[254] Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[255] Serbia:[256][257] Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882 Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883 Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897 Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[258] Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[259] Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[260] Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[261] Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[262] Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland. Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland) Family Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria. Issue See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and of King Christian IX Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][263] Victoria, the Princess Royal 1840 Nov. 21 1901 August 5 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888); 4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece) Edward VII 1841 Nov. 9 1910 May 6 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925); 3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway) Princess Alice 1843 April 25 1878 Dec. 14 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892); 2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1844 August 6 1900 July 31 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920); 2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania) Princess Helena 1846 May 25 1923 June 9 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917); 4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters Princess Louise 1848 March 18 1939 Dec.3 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914); no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1850 May 1 1942 Jan. 16 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917); 1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 1853 April 7 1884 March 28 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922); 1 son, 1 daughter Princess Beatrice 1857 April 14 1944 Oct. 26 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896); 3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain) Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Victoria[264] Family tree   Red borders indicate British monarchs     Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V Notes  As monarch, Victoria was Supreme Governor of the Church of England. She was also aligned with the Church of Scotland.  Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh).  Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581. References Citations  Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29  Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35  Longford, p. 24  Worsley, p. 41.  Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81  Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126  Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25  Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers.  Hibbert, pp. 27–28; Waller, pp. 341–342; Woodham-Smith, pp. 63–65  Hibbert, pp. 32–33; Longford, pp. 38–39, 55; Marshall, p. 19  Waller, pp. 338–341; Woodham-Smith, pp. 68–69, 91  Hibbert, p. 18; Longford, p. 31; Woodham-Smith, pp. 74–75  Longford, p. 31; Woodham-Smith, p. 75  Hibbert, pp. 34–35  Hibbert, pp. 35–39; Woodham-Smith, pp. 88–89, 102  Hibbert, p. 36; Woodham-Smith, pp. 89–90  Hibbert, pp. 35–40; Woodham-Smith, pp. 92, 102  Hibbert, pp. 38–39; Longford, p. 47; Woodham-Smith, pp. 101–102  Hibbert, p. 42; Woodham-Smith, p. 105  Hibbert, p. 42; Longford, pp. 47–48; Marshall, p. 21  Hibbert, pp. 42, 50; Woodham-Smith, p. 135  Marshall, p. 46; St Aubyn, p. 67; Waller, p. 353  Longford, pp. 29, 51; Waller, p. 363; Weintraub, pp. 43–49  Longford, p. 51; Weintraub, pp. 43–49  Longford, pp. 51–52; St Aubyn, p. 43; Weintraub, pp. 43–49; Woodham-Smith, p. 117  Weintraub, pp. 43–49  Victoria quoted in Marshall, p. 27 and Weintraub, p. 49  Victoria quoted in Hibbert, p. 99; St Aubyn, p. 43; Weintraub, p. 49 and Woodham-Smith, p. 119  Victoria's journal, October 1835, quoted in St Aubyn, p. 36 and Woodham-Smith, p. 104  Hibbert, p. 102; Marshall, p. 60; Waller, p. 363; Weintraub, p. 51; Woodham-Smith, p. 122  Waller, pp. 363–364; Weintraub, pp. 53, 58, 64, and 65  St Aubyn, pp. 55–57; Woodham-Smith, p. 138  Woodham-Smith, p. 140  Packard, pp. 14–15  Hibbert, pp. 66–69; St Aubyn, p. 76; Woodham-Smith, pp. 143–147  Greville quoted in Hibbert, p. 67; Longford, p. 70 and Woodham-Smith, pp. 143–144  Queen Victoria's Coronation 1838, The British Monarchy, archived from the original on 3 February 2016, retrieved 28 January 2016  St Aubyn, p. 69; Waller, p. 353  Hibbert, p. 58; Longford, pp. 73–74; Woodham-Smith, p. 152  Marshall, p. 42; St Aubyn, pp. 63, 96  Marshall, p. 47; Waller, p. 356; Woodham-Smith, pp. 164–166  Hibbert, pp. 77–78; Longford, p. 97; St Aubyn, p. 97; Waller, p. 357; Woodham-Smith, p. 164  Victoria's journal, 25 April 1838, quoted in Woodham-Smith, p. 162  St Aubyn, p. 96; Woodham-Smith, pp. 162, 165  Hibbert, p. 79; Longford, p. 98; St Aubyn, p. 99; Woodham-Smith, p. 167  Hibbert, pp. 80–81; Longford, pp. 102–103; St Aubyn, pp. 101–102  Longford, p. 122; Marshall, p. 57; St Aubyn, p. 104; Woodham-Smith, p. 180  Hibbert, p. 83; Longford, pp. 120–121; Marshall, p. 57; St Aubyn, p. 105; Waller, p. 358  St Aubyn, p. 107; Woodham-Smith, p. 169  Hibbert, pp. 94–96; Marshall, pp. 53–57; St Aubyn, pp. 109–112; Waller, pp. 359–361; Woodham-Smith, pp. 170–174  Longford, p. 84; Marshall, p. 52  Longford, p. 72; Waller, p. 353  Woodham-Smith, p. 175  Hibbert, pp. 103–104; Marshall, pp. 60–66; Weintraub, p. 62  Hibbert, pp. 107–110; St Aubyn, pp. 129–132; Weintraub, pp. 77–81; Woodham-Smith, pp. 182–184, 187  Hibbert, p. 123; Longford, p. 143; Woodham-Smith, p. 205  St Aubyn, p. 151  Hibbert, p. 265, Woodham-Smith, p. 256  Marshall, p. 152; St Aubyn, pp. 174–175; Woodham-Smith, p. 412  Charles, p. 23  Hibbert, pp. 421–422; St Aubyn, pp. 160–161  Woodham-Smith, p. 213  Hibbert, p. 130; Longford, p. 154; Marshall, p. 122; St Aubyn, p. 159; Woodham-Smith, p. 220  Hibbert, p. 149; St Aubyn, p. 169  Hibbert, p. 149; Longford, p. 154; Marshall, p. 123; Waller, p. 377  Woodham-Smith, p. 100  Longford, p. 56; St Aubyn, p. 29  Hibbert, pp. 150–156; Marshall, p. 87; St Aubyn, pp. 171–173; Woodham-Smith, pp. 230–232  Charles, p. 51; Hibbert, pp. 422–423; St Aubyn, pp. 162–163  Hibbert, p. 423; St Aubyn, p. 163  Longford, p. 192  St Aubyn, p. 164  Marshall, pp. 95–101; St Aubyn, pp. 153–155; Woodham-Smith, pp. 221–222  Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, Royal Collection, archived from the original on 17 January 2016, retrieved 29 March 2013  Woodham-Smith, p. 281  Longford, p. 359  The title of Maud Gonne's 1900 article upon Queen Victoria's visit to Ireland  Harrison, Shane (15 April 2003), "Famine Queen row in Irish port", BBC News, archived from the original on 19 September 2019, retrieved 29 March 2013  Officer, Lawrence H.; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018), Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present, MeasuringWorth, archived from the original on 6 April 2018, retrieved 5 April 2018  Kinealy, Christine, Private Responses to the Famine, University College Cork, archived from the original on 6 April 2013, retrieved 29 March 2013  Longford, p. 181  Kenny, Mary (2009), Crown and Shamrock: Love and Hate Between Ireland and the British Monarchy, Dublin: New Island, ISBN 978-1-905494-98-9  St Aubyn, p. 215  St Aubyn, p. 238  Longford, pp. 175, 187; St Aubyn, pp. 238, 241; Woodham-Smith, pp. 242, 250  Woodham-Smith, p. 248  Hibbert, p. 198; Longford, p. 194; St Aubyn, p. 243; Woodham-Smith, pp. 282–284  Hibbert, pp. 201–202; Marshall, p. 139; St Aubyn, pp. 222–223; Woodham-Smith, pp. 287–290  Hibbert, pp. 161–164; Marshall, p. 129; St Aubyn, pp. 186–190; Woodham-Smith, pp. 274–276  Longford, pp. 196–197; St Aubyn, p. 223; Woodham-Smith, pp. 287–290  Longford, p. 191; Woodham-Smith, p. 297  St Aubyn, p. 216  Hibbert, pp. 196–198; St Aubyn, p. 244; Woodham-Smith, pp. 298–307  Hibbert, pp. 204–209; Marshall, pp. 108–109; St Aubyn, pp. 244–254; Woodham-Smith, pp. 298–307  Hibbert, pp. 216–217; St Aubyn, pp. 257–258  Matthew, H. C. G.; Reynolds, K. D. (October 2009) [2004], "Victoria (1819–1901)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/36652 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)  Hibbert, pp. 217–220; Woodham-Smith, pp. 328–331  Hibbert, pp. 227–228; Longford, pp. 245–246; St Aubyn, p. 297; Woodham-Smith, pp. 354–355  Woodham-Smith, pp. 357–360  Queen Victoria, "Saturday, 18th August 1855", Queen Victoria's Journals, vol. 40, p. 93, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 2 June 2012 – via The Royal Archives  1855 visit of Queen Victoria, Château de Versailles, archived from the original on 11 January 2013, retrieved 29 March 2013  "Queen Victoria in Paris", Royal Collection Trust, archived from the original on 29 August 2022, retrieved 29 August 2022  Hibbert, pp. 241–242; Longford, pp. 280–281; St Aubyn, p. 304; Woodham-Smith, p. 391  Hibbert, p. 242; Longford, p. 281; Marshall, p. 117  Napoleon III Receiving Queen Victoria at Cherbourg, 5 August 1858, Royal Museums Greenwich, archived from the original on 3 April 2012, retrieved 29 March 2013  Hibbert, p. 255; Marshall, p. 117  Longford, pp. 259–260; Weintraub, pp. 326 ff.  Longford, p. 263; Weintraub, pp. 326, 330  Hibbert, p. 244  Hibbert, p. 267; Longford, pp. 118, 290; St Aubyn, p. 319; Woodham-Smith, p. 412  Hibbert, p. 267; Marshall, p. 152; Woodham-Smith, p. 412  Hibbert, pp. 265–267; St Aubyn, p. 318; Woodham-Smith, pp. 412–413  Waller, p. 393; Weintraub, p. 401  Hibbert, p. 274; Longford, p. 293; St Aubyn, p. 324; Woodham-Smith, p. 417  Longford, p. 293; Marshall, p. 153; Strachey, p. 214  Hibbert, pp. 276–279; St Aubyn, p. 325; Woodham-Smith, pp. 422–423  Hibbert, pp. 280–292; Marshall, p. 154  Hibbert, p. 299; St Aubyn, p. 346  St Aubyn, p. 343  e.g. Strachey, p. 306  Ridley, Jane (27 May 2017), "Queen Victoria – burdened by grief and six-course dinners", The Spectator, archived from the original on 28 August 2018, retrieved 28 August 2018  Marshall, pp. 170–172; St Aubyn, p. 385  Hibbert, p. 310; Longford, p. 321; St Aubyn, pp. 343–344; Waller, p. 404  Hibbert, p. 310; Longford, p. 322  Hibbert, pp. 323–324; Marshall, pp. 168–169; St Aubyn, pp. 356–362  Hibbert, pp. 321–322; Longford, pp. 327–328; Marshall, p. 170  Hibbert, p. 329; St Aubyn, pp. 361–362  Hibbert, pp. 311–312; Longford, p. 347; St Aubyn, p. 369  St Aubyn, pp. 374–375  Marshall, p. 199; Strachey, p. 299  Hibbert, p. 318; Longford, p. 401; St Aubyn, p. 427; Strachey, p. 254  Buckle, George Earle; Monypenny, W. F. (1910–1920) The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, vol. 5, p. 49, quoted in Strachey, p. 243  Hibbert, p. 320; Strachey, pp. 246–247  Longford, p. 381; St Aubyn, pp. 385–386; Strachey, p. 248  St Aubyn, pp. 385–386; Strachey, pp. 248–250  Longford, p. 385  Hibbert, p. 343  Hibbert, pp. 343–344; Longford, p. 389; Marshall, p. 173  Hibbert, pp. 344–345  Hibbert, p. 345; Longford, pp. 390–391; Marshall, p. 176; St Aubyn, p. 388  Charles, p. 103; Hibbert, pp. 426–427; St Aubyn, pp. 388–389  Old Bailey Proceedings Online, Trial of Arthur O'Connor. (t18720408-352, 8 April 1872).  Hibbert, p. 427; Marshall, p. 176; St Aubyn, p. 389  Hibbert, pp. 249–250; Woodham-Smith, pp. 384–385  Woodham-Smith, p. 386  Hibbert, p. 251; Woodham-Smith, p. 386  St Aubyn, p. 335  Hibbert, p. 361; Longford, p. 402; Marshall, pp. 180–184; Waller, p. 423  Hibbert, pp. 295–296; Waller, p. 423  Hibbert, p. 361; Longford, pp. 405–406; Marshall, p. 184; St Aubyn, p. 434; Waller, p. 426  Waller, p. 427  Victoria's diary and letters quoted in Longford, p. 425  Victoria quoted in Longford, p. 426  Longford, pp. 412–413  Longford, p. 426  Longford, p. 411  Hibbert, pp. 367–368; Longford, p. 429; Marshall, p. 186; St Aubyn, pp. 442–444; Waller, pp. 428–429  Letter from Victoria to Montagu Corry, 1st Baron Rowton, quoted in Hibbert, p. 369  Longford, p. 437  Hibbert, p. 420; St Aubyn, p. 422  Hibbert, p. 420; St Aubyn, p. 421  Hibbert, pp. 420–421; St Aubyn, p. 422; Strachey, p. 278  Hibbert, p. 427; Longford, p. 446; St Aubyn, p. 421  Longford, pp. 451–452  Longford, p. 454; St Aubyn, p. 425; Hibbert, p. 443  Hibbert, pp. 443–444; St Aubyn, pp. 425–426  Hibbert, pp. 443–444; Longford, p. 455  Hibbert, p. 444; St Aubyn, p. 424; Waller, p. 413  Longford, p. 461  Longford, pp. 477–478  Hibbert, p. 373; St Aubyn, p. 458  Waller, p. 433; see also Hibbert, pp. 370–371 and Marshall, pp. 191–193  Hibbert, p. 373; Longford, p. 484  Hibbert, p. 374; Longford, p. 491; Marshall, p. 196; St Aubyn, pp. 460–461  Queen Victoria, Royal Household, archived from the original on 13 March 2021, retrieved 29 March 2013  Marshall, pp. 210–211; St Aubyn, pp. 491–493  Longford, p. 502  Hibbert, pp. 447–448; Longford, p. 508; St Aubyn, p. 502; Waller, p. 441  "Queen Victoria's Urdu workbook on show", BBC News, 15 September 2017, archived from the original on 1 December 2017, retrieved 23 November 2017  Hunt, Kristin (20 September 2017), "Victoria and Abdul: The Friendship that Scandalized England", Smithsonian, archived from the original on 1 December 2017, retrieved 23 November 2017  Hibbert, pp. 448–449  Hibbert, pp. 449–451  Hibbert, p. 447; Longford, p. 539; St Aubyn, p. 503; Waller, p. 442  Hibbert, p. 454  Hibbert, p. 382  Hibbert, p. 375; Longford, p. 519  Hibbert, p. 376; Longford, p. 530; St Aubyn, p. 515  Hibbert, p. 377  Hibbert, p. 456  Longford, p. 546; St Aubyn, pp. 545–546  Marshall, pp. 206–207, 211; St Aubyn, pp. 546–548  MacMillan, Margaret (2013), The War That Ended Peace, Random House, p. 29, ISBN 978-0-8129-9470-4  Hibbert, pp. 457–458; Marshall, pp. 206–207, 211; St Aubyn, pp. 546–548  Hibbert, p. 436; St Aubyn, p. 508  Hibbert, pp. 437–438; Longford, pp. 554–555; St Aubyn, p. 555  Longford, p. 558  Hibbert, pp. 464–466, 488–489; Strachey, p. 308; Waller, p. 442  Victoria's journal, 1 January 1901, quoted in Hibbert, p. 492; Longford, p. 559 and St Aubyn, p. 592  Her personal physician Sir James Reid, 1st Baronet, quoted in Hibbert, p. 492  Longford, p. 562  Longford, p. 561; St Aubyn, p. 598  Rappaport, Helen (2003), "Animals", Queen Victoria: A Biographical Companion, pp. 34–39, ISBN 978-1-85109-355-7  Hibbert, p. 497; Longford, p. 563  St Aubyn, p. 598  Longford, p. 563  Hibbert, p. 498  Longford, p. 565; St Aubyn, p. 600  Gander, Kashmira (26 August 2015), "Queen Elizabeth II to become Britain's longest reigning monarch, surpassing Queen Victoria", The Daily Telegraph, London, archived from the original on 19 September 2015, retrieved 9 September 2015  Fulford, Roger (1967) "Victoria", Collier's Encyclopedia, United States: Crowell, Collier and Macmillan Inc., vol. 23, p. 127  Ashley, Mike (1998) British Monarchs, London: Robinson, ISBN 1-84119-096-9, p. 690  Example from a letter written by lady-in-waiting Marie Mallet née Adeane, quoted in Hibbert, p. 471  Hibbert, p. xv; St Aubyn, p. 340  St Aubyn, p. 30; Woodham-Smith, p. 87  Hibbert, pp. 503–504; St Aubyn, p. 30; Woodham-Smith, pp. 88, 436–437  Hibbert, p. 503  Hibbert, pp. 503–504; St Aubyn, p. 624  Hibbert, pp. 61–62; Longford, pp. 89, 253; St Aubyn, pp. 48, 63–64  Marshall, p. 210; Waller, pp. 419, 434–435, 443  Waller, p. 439  St Aubyn, p. 624  Hibbert, p. 504; St Aubyn, p. 623  e.g. Hibbert, p. 352; Strachey, p. 304; Woodham-Smith, p. 431  Waller, p. 429  Bagehot, Walter (1867), The English Constitution, London: Chapman and Hall, p. 103  St Aubyn, pp. 602–603; Strachey, pp. 303–304; Waller, pp. 366, 372, 434  Erickson, Carolly (1997) Her Little Majesty: The Life of Queen Victoria, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-7432-3657-2  Rogaev, Evgeny I.; Grigorenko, Anastasia P.; Faskhutdinova, Gulnaz; Kittler, Ellen L. W.; Moliaka, Yuri K. (2009), "Genotype Analysis Identifies the Cause of the "Royal Disease"", Science, 326 (5954): 817, Bibcode:2009Sci...326..817R, doi:10.1126/science.1180660, PMID 19815722, S2CID 206522975  Potts and Potts, pp. 55–65, quoted in Hibbert p. 217; Packard, pp. 42–43  Jones, Steve (1996) In the Blood, BBC documentary  McKusick, Victor A. (1965), "The Royal Hemophilia", Scientific American, 213 (2): 91, Bibcode:1965SciAm.213b..88M, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0865-88, PMID 14319025; Jones, Steve (1993), The Language of the Genes, London: HarperCollins, p. 69, ISBN 0-00-255020-2; Jones, Steve (1993), In The Blood: God, Genes and Destiny, London: HarperCollins, p. 270, ISBN 0-00-255511-5; Rushton, Alan R. (2008), Royal Maladies: Inherited Diseases in the Royal Houses of Europe, Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford, pp. 31–32, ISBN 978-1-4251-6810-0  Hemophilia B, National Hemophilia Foundation, 5 March 2014, archived from the original on 24 March 2015, retrieved 29 March 2015  Whitaker's Almanack (1900) Facsimile Reprint 1998, London: Stationery Office, ISBN 0-11-702247-0, p. 86  Risk, James; Pownall, Henry; Stanley, David; Tamplin, John; Martin, Stanley (2001), Royal Service, vol. 2, Lingfield: Third Millennium Publishing/Victorian Publishing, pp. 16–19  "No. 21846". The London Gazette. 5 February 1856. pp. 410–411.  "No. 22523". The London Gazette. 25 June 1861. p. 2621.  Whitaker, Joseph (1894), An Almanack for the Year of Our Lord ..., J. Whitaker, p. 112, archived from the original on 11 June 2020, retrieved 15 December 2019  "No. 24539". The London Gazette. 4 January 1878. p. 113.  Shaw, William Arthur (1906), "Introduction", The Knights of England, vol. 1, London: Sherratt and Hughes, p. xxxi  "The Royal Red Cross Archived 28 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine". QARANC – Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Retrieved 28 November 2019.  "No. 25641". The London Gazette. 9 November 1886. pp. 5385–5386.  The Albert Medal, Royal Society of Arts, London, UK, archived from the original on 8 June 2011, retrieved 12 December 2019  "No. 26733". The London Gazette. 24 April 1896. p. 2455.  "Real orden de damas nobles de la Reina Maria Luisa", Calendario Manual y Guía de Forasteros en Madrid (in Spanish), Madrid: Imprenta Real, p. 91, 1834, archived from the original on 28 March 2021, retrieved 21 November 2019 – via hathitrust.org  Kimizuka, Naotaka (2004), 女王陛下のブルーリボン: ガーター勲章とイギリス外交 [Her Majesty The Queen's Blue Ribbon: The Order of the Garter and British Diplomacy] (in Japanese), Tokyo: NTT Publishing, p. 303, ISBN 978-4-7571-4073-8, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 13 September 2020  Bragança, Jose Vicente de (2014), "Agraciamentos Portugueses Aos Príncipes da Casa Saxe-Coburgo-Gota" [Portuguese Honours awarded to Princes of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha], Pro Phalaris (in Portuguese), vol. 9–10, p. 6, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 28 November 2019  "Knights of the Order of St. Catherine", List of Knights of the Russian Imperial and Tsarist Orders (in Russian), Saint Petersburg: Printing house of the II branch of His Imperial Majesty’s Chancellery, 1850, p. 15, archived from the original on 12 June 2020, retrieved 20 October 2019  Wattel, Michel; Wattel, Béatrice (2009), Les Grand'Croix de la Légion d'honneur de 1805 à nos jours. Titulaires français et étrangers (in French), Paris: Archives & Culture, pp. 21, 460, 564, ISBN 978-2-35077-135-9  "Seccion IV: Ordenes del Imperio", Almanaque imperial para el año 1866 (in Spanish), Mexico City: Imp. de J.M. Lara, 1866, p. 244, archived from the original on 28 October 2020, retrieved 13 September 2020  Olvera Ayes, David A. (2020). "La Orden Imperial de San Carlos". Cuadernos del Cronista Editores, México.  Queen Victoria, "Thursday, 11th June 1857", Queen Victoria's Journals, vol. 43, p. 171, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 2 June 2012 – via The Royal Archives  Queen Victoria, "Tuesday, 3rd December 1872", Queen Victoria's Journals, vol. 61, p. 333, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 2 June 2012 – via The Royal Archives  Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (1874), "Chapter IV: England", The Diary of H.M. The Shah of Persia during his tour through Europe in A.D. 1873: A verbatim translation, translated by Redhouse, James William, London: John Murray, p. 149  "Court Circular". Court and Social. The Times. No. 29924. London. 3 July 1880. col G, p. 11.  ข่าวรับพระราชสาสน์ พระราชสาสน์จากกษัตริย์ในประเทศยุโรปที่ทรงยินดีในการได้รับพระราชสาสน์จากพระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว (PDF), Royal Thai Government Gazette (in Thai), 5 May 1887, archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020, retrieved 8 May 2019  Kalakaua to his sister, 24 July 1881, quoted in Greer, Richard A. (editor, 1967) "The Royal Tourist – Kalakaua's Letters Home from Tokio to London Archived 19 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine", Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 5, p. 100  Acović, Dragomir (2012), Slava i čast: Odlikovanja među Srbima, Srbi među odlikovanjima (in Serbian), Belgrade: Službeni Glasnik, p. 364  "Two Royal Families – Historical Ties", The Royal Family of Serbia, 13 March 2016, archived from the original on 6 December 2019, retrieved 6 December 2019  "Goldener Löwen-orden", Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste (in German), Darmstadt: Staatsverlag, 1885, p. 35, archived from the original on 6 September 2021, retrieved 6 September 2021 – via hathitrust.org  "Honorary Badge of the Red Cross", Bulgarian Royal Decorations, archived from the original on 15 December 2019, retrieved 15 December 2019  "The Imperial Orders and Decorations of Ethiopia", The Crown Council of Ethiopia, archived from the original on 26 December 2012, retrieved 21 November 2019  "The Order of Sovereign Prince Danilo I". orderofdanilo.org. Archived 9 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine  "Silver Wedding medal of Duke Alfred of Saxe-Coburg & Grand Duchess Marie", Royal Collection, archived from the original on 12 December 2019, retrieved 12 December 2019  Whitaker's Almanack (1993) Concise Edition, London: J. Whitaker and Sons, ISBN 0-85021-232-4, pp. 134–136  Louda, Jiří; Maclagan, Michael (1999), Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe, London: Little, Brown, p. 34, ISBN 978-1-85605-469-0 Bibliography Charles, Barrie (2012), Kill the Queen! The Eight Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria, Stroud: Amberley Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4456-0457-2 Hibbert, Christopher (2000), Queen Victoria: A Personal History, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-638843-4 Longford, Elizabeth (1964), Victoria R.I., London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-17001-5 Marshall, Dorothy (1972), The Life and Times of Queen Victoria (1992 reprint ed.), London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-83166-6 Packard, Jerrold M. (1998), Victoria's Daughters, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-24496-7 Potts, D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria's Gene: Haemophilia and the Royal Family, Stroud: Alan Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-1199-9 St. Aubyn, Giles (1991), Queen Victoria: A Portrait, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, ISBN 1-85619-086-2 Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and Windus Waller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2 Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9 Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2 Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow, London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8 Primary sources Benson, A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. (1907), The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection of Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861, London: John Murray Bolitho, Hector, ed. (1938), Letters of Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of Brandenburg-Prussia, London: Thornton Butterworth Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1926), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd Series 1862–1885, London: John Murray Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1930), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd Series 1886–1901, London: John Murray Connell, Brian (1962), Regina v. Palmerston: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837–1865, London: Evans Brothers Duff, David, ed. (1968), Victoria in the Highlands: The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, London: Muller Dyson, Hope; Tennyson, Charles, eds. (1969), Dear and Honoured Lady: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson, London: Macmillan Esher, Viscount, ed. (1912), The Girlhood of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832 and 1840, London: John Murray Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans Brothers Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7 Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-434-34861-9 Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan Ramm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6 Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder Further reading Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4 Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0 Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7 Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876 Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3 James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630 Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8 Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777 Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2 Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0 External links Listen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes) 1:01:53 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Victoria at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Queen Victoria at the official website of the British monarchy Queen Victoria at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust Queen Victoria at BBC Teach Portraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Victoria's Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian Library Works by Queen Victoria at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Queen Victoria at Internet Archive Works by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Queen Victoria House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901 Regnal titles Preceded by William IV Queen of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by Edward VII Vacant Title last held by Bahadur Shah II as Mughal emperor Empress of India 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 vte Queen Victoria Events Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball Reign Bedchamber crisisPrime ministersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsDeath and state funeral Mausoleum Family Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, German Empress (daughter)Edward VII (son)Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)DescendantsRoyal descendants Early life Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy Honours PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant) Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020) Television Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019) Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972) Statues and memorials List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch Poetry "The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897) Songs VictoriaChoral Songs Stamps British Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue Colonial Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps Related Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond CrownVictoriana ← William IVEdward VII → vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Æthelstan (from 927)Edmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnLouisHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VICharles IThe Protectorate Oliver CromwellRichard CromwellCharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhineHelena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllBeatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover 7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenLady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthloneMarie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover 8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodAlexandra, Princess Arthur of Connaught and Duchess of FifeMaud Carnegie, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor 12th generation Princess Charlotte of WalesPrincess Lilibet of Sussex Princesses whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics. vte Hanoverian princesses by birth Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III. 1st generation Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia 2nd generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 3rd generation Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie 4th generation Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 5th generation Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes 7th generation Princess Alexandra Authority control Edit this at Wikidata International FASTISNIVIAFWorldCat National NorwayChileSpainFranceBnF dataCataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelFinlandBelgiumUnited StatesSwedenLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaGreeceKoreaCroatiaNetherlandsPolandVatican Academics CiNii Artists MusicBrainz 2VictoriaRKD ArtistsTe Papa (New Zealand)ULAN People Deutsche BiographieTrove Other NARARISMSNAC 2IdRef Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of AustraliaQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsBritish royal memoiristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo

Like the sixpence, the threepenny piece first appeared as a silver coin in 1551. But in competition with the half-groat or twopenny piece, which had already been in circulation for 200 years, it led a precarious existence and was unable to establish itself firmly. Struck during the reign of Elizabeth I and then again during the Civil War, minting was resumed following the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660. By the early part of the 18th century the coin only really survived as a part of the small annual issues of Maundy Money.

Its role changed in 1845, when it began to be issued in large numbers for general circulation. This further attempt to popularise the coin proved successful, no doubt in part because of the large and inconvenient size of the copper coinage.

During the 20th century changing habits and customs again rendered the threepenny piece unpopular, and to meet criticism of its small size a 12-sided nickel-brass piece of the same denomination but weighing almost five times as much as its silver counterpart was introduced in 1937. Its dumpiness and unusual shape aroused mixed feelings but in 1941 it had almost completely superseded its silver rival and was even being acclaimed by bus conductors and others as the easiest coin to recognise during the blackouts of the Second World War.

Twelve-sided threepenny pieces were demonetised at the end of the decimal transitional period in 1971.

A true antique (Latin: antiquus; 'old', 'ancient') is an item perceived as having value because of its aesthetic or historical significance, and often defined as at least 100 years old (or some other limit), although the term is often used loosely to describe any object that is old.[1] An antique is usually an item that is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection, and/or other unique features. It is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human history. Vintage and collectible are used to describe items that are old, but do not meet the 100-year criterion.[2]

Antiques are usually objects of the decorative arts that show some degree of craftsmanship, collectability, or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at antiques shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions, and other venues, or estate inherited. Antiques dealers often belong to national trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA, a confederation of art and antique associations across 21 countries that represents 5,000 dealers.

Definition

The common definition of antique is a collectible object such as a piece of furniture or work of art that has an enhanced value because of its considerable age, but it varies depending on the item, its source, the year of its creation etc. The customary definition of antique requires that an item should be at least 100 years old and in original condition[citation needed]. (Motor vehicles are an exception to this rule, with some definitions requiring an automobile to be as little as 25 years old to qualify as an antique.[3])

In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as, "...works of art (except rugs and carpets made after the year 1700), collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, works in bronze, marble, terra cotta, parian, pottery, or porcelain, artistic antiquities and objects of ornamental character or educational value which shall have been produced prior to the year 1830."[citation needed] 1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects.

In 1979, the British art critic Edward Lucie-Smith wrote that "Antique-dealers ... sometimes insist that nothing is antique which was made after 1830, although the barrier has been broken down in recent years by the enthusiasm of collectors for Art Nouveau and Art Deco.[4]

The alternative term, antiquities, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past.

China

Traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a 'chop', placed there by an owner.[citation needed] Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops. The pre-revolution Chinese government[clarification needed] tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique. The government of the People's Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique.[clarification needed] As of the Cultural Revolution and China's opening trade to other countries, the government has tried to protect the definition of a Chinese antique.[clarification needed]

Antiquing

A vintage travel gear seller at Marché Dauphine, Saint-Ouen, Paris

"Antiquing" redirects here. For the decorative arts technique, see Distressing.

Antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for personal use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, and international auction houses.

Note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or using the antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques. Would-be antique collectors who are unaware of the differences may find themselves paying a high amount of money for something that would have little value if re-sold.

Furniture

Furniture antiques from the Chinese Liao dynasty

Main article: Antique furniture

Antique furniture is a popular area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use antique furniture pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that the value of these items will remain same or appreciate. This is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase.

Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc. The most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood. Chinese antique furniture is often made with elm, a wood common to many regions in Asia. Each wood has a distinctive grain and color. Many modern pieces of furniture use laminate or wood veneer to achieve the same effect. There are a number of different styles of antique furniture depending on when and where it was made. Some examples of stylistic periods are: Arts & Crafts, Georgian, Regency, and Victorian.

An important part of some antique furniture is its hardware fittings, the style of which varies from one period to another. For example, Victorian era hardware is different from other period hardware and is perceived to be aesthetically defined; this is the reason for its popularity.[5]

See also

American Pickers

Antiquarian book trade in the United States

Antique tool

Antiques restoration

Antiques Roadshow

Authentication

Del Mar Antique Show

Dolly Johnson Antique and Art Show

List of antiques experts

Primitive decorating, a style of decorating using antiques

Relic

The San Francisco Fall Antiques Show

Vintage (design)

References

 "Definition of ANTIQUE". www.merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

 "The difference between antique, vintage, and collectible item. - Antique HQ". www.antique-hq.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

 "About: A concise history of AACA in the beginning". Antique Automobile Club of America. US. Retrieved 15 June 2014.

 Lucie-Smith, Edward, A Concise History of Furniture, p. 13, 1979, Thames & Hudson, World of Art series

 Decorative Hardware of the Victorian Era - An American Perspective, DHI Magazine, 11 September 2021

Victorian era

1837–1901

Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg

Queen Victoria in 1859 by Winterhalter

Monarch(s) Victoria

Leader(s)

The Viscount Melbourne

Sir Robert Peel

Lord John Russell

The Earl of Derby

The Earl of Aberdeen

The Viscount Palmerston

Benjamin Disraeli

William Ewart Gladstone

The Marquess of Salisbury

The Earl of Rosebery

← Preceded by

Georgian era Followed by →

Edwardian era

Part of a series on the

History of the United Kingdom

BRITANNIA prout divisa fuit temporibus ANGLO-SAXONUM, praesertim durante illorum HEPTARCHIA

Timeline

Topics

flag United Kingdom portal

vte

Periods in English history

 

Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 AD

British Iron Age c. 800 BC

Roman Britain c. 43–410

Sub-Roman Britain c. 400s – late 500s

Anglo-Saxon c. 500–1066

Norman 1066–1154

Plantagenet 1154–1485

Tudor 1485–1603

Elizabethan 1558–1603

Stuart 1603–1714

Jacobean 1603–1625

Caroline 1625–1649

(Interregnum) 1649–1660

Restoration 1660–1714

Georgian era 1714–1837

Regency era 1811–1820

Victorian era 1837–1901

Edwardian era 1901–1914

First World War 1914–1918

Interwar Britain 1919–1939

Second World War 1939–1945

Postwar Britain (political) 1945–1979

Postwar Britain (social) 1945–1979

See also

Political history (1979–present)

Social history (1979–present)

Timeline

vte

Part of a series on the

History of Scotland

Arms of Scotland

SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus

Eras

Prehistoric (timeline) 12,000 BC–700 BC

During the Roman Empire 69–384

Middle Ages

Early

High

Late

Early Modern

Modern

History (timeline)

Rule

House of Alpin (843–878; 889–1040)

House of Moray (1040–1058)

House of Dunkeld (1058–1286)

House of Balliol (1292–1296)

House of Bruce (1306–1371)

House of Stuart (1371–1652) (1660–1707)

Commonwealth (1652–1660)

Acts of Union 1707

Topics

Culture

ArchitectureArtThe KiltLiteraturePhilosophy

Politics

DevolutionLocal governmentScottish National PartyScottish Socialist Party

Sport

FootballRugby unionNational football teamGolf

Religion

Christianity Scottish ReformationScottish Episcopal ChurchGreat DisruptionJews and JudaismIslam and Muslims

By Region

Edinburgh timelineGlasgow timeline

flag Scotland portal

vte

In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of Continental Europe.

There was a strong religious drive for higher moral standards led by the nonconformist churches, such as the Methodists and the evangelical wing of the established Church of England. Ideologically, the Victorian era witnessed resistance to the rationalism that defined the Georgian period, and an increasing turn towards romanticism and even mysticism in religion, social values, and arts.[1] This era saw a staggering amount of technological innovations that proved key to Britain's power and prosperity.[2][3] Doctors started moving away from tradition and mysticism towards a science-based approach; medicine advanced thanks to the adoption of the germ theory of disease and pioneering research in epidemiology.[4]

Domestically, the political agenda was increasingly liberal, with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform, improved social reform, and the widening of the franchise. There were unprecedented demographic changes: the population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901,[5] and Scotland's population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901.[6] However, Ireland's population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[7] Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrated from Great Britain, mostly to the United States, as well as to imperial outposts in Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.[8] Thanks to educational reforms, the British population not only approached universal literacy towards the end of the era but also became increasingly well-educated; the market for reading materials of all kinds boomed.[9][10][11]

Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by antagonism with Russia, including the Crimean War and the Great Game. A Pax Britannica of peaceful trade was maintained by the country's naval and industrial supremacy. Britain embarked on global imperial expansion, particularly in Asia and Africa, which made the British Empire the largest empire in history. National self-confidence peaked.[12][13] Britain granted political autonomy to the more advanced colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.[14] Apart from the Crimean War, Britain was not involved in any armed conflict with another major power.[14][15]

The two main political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end, the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Irish Home Rule played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement in Ireland.

Terminology and periodisation

See also: Periodisation

In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII. Her reign lasted for 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.[16] The era has also been understood in a more extensive sense as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales. Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label "Victorian", though there have also been defences of it.[17]

Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".[18] He distinguished early Victorianism – the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850[19] – and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism,[20] from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterized by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery, and complacency[21] – what G. M. Trevelyan similarly called the "mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity".[22]

Political and diplomatic history

Main articles: Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Domestically, Britain liberalised and gradually evolved into a democracy. The Reform Act[note 1], which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832.[23] The franchise was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867.[24] Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised.[25] From 1845 to 1852, the Great Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.[26] The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this.[27] Across the British Empire reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions, the end of transportation of convicts to Australia, loosening restrictions on colonial trade, and introducing responsible (i.e semi-autonomous) government.[15][14]

The defence of Rorke's Drift during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879

The period from 1815 to 1914 is known as the Pax Britannia. A period of relatively peaceful relations between the world's Great Powers. This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others.[15] The only case of the empire participating in a war against another major power is the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856.[28][15] Their were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British empire.[15][14] Britain participated in wars against minor powers.[29][15][30][14][15] It also took part in the diplomatic struggles of the Great Game[29] and the Scramble for Africa.[15][14]

In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. The couple had nine children who themselves married into various royal families and the queen thus became known as the "grandmother of Europe".[31][25] In 1861, Prince Albert died.[29] Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.[25] In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, the Queen began to return to public life.[31] In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire.[31] Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901.[31]

Society and culture

Main article: Society and culture of the Victorian era

Recreation of a Victorian Parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire

The era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as the dominant class in British society.[32][33] A distinctive middle class lifestyle developed which reflected on what was valued by society as a whole.[32][34] Increased importance was placed on the value of the family and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity.[35][36] A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace which had often not been the case before.[34] The home was seen as a private environment,[34] where housewives provided their husbands with a rest-bite from the troubles of the outside world.[35] Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and rely on men as breadwinners.[37][38] Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life and a feminist movement developed.[38][39] Whilst parental authority was seen as important children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time.[40]

Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)

The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour which included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self criticism.[33][41] As well as personal improvement, importance was given to social reform.[42] Utilitarianism was another philosophy which saw itself as based on science rather than morality, but also placed emphasis on social progress.[43][44] An alliance formed between these two ideological strands.[45] The causes the reformers emphasised included improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality and political reform in order to establish a democracy.[46] The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (a part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party.[47] This continued up until the First World War.[48] The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland.[49]

Religion was politically controversial during this era with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of the Church of England.[50] Nonconformists, who comprised about half of church attendees in 1851,[51] gradually had the legal discrimination which had been established against them outside of Scotland removed.[52][53][54][55] Legal restrictions on Catholics were also largely removed. The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland.[50] Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education during this time period.[56] Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal[57]) gained appeal among academics in the south.[58] Historians refer to a "Victorian Crisis of Faith" as a period where religious views had to readjust to suit new scientific knowledge and criticism of the bible.[59]

Leisure hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy

Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly nearing universal levels by the end of the century.[60][61] Private education for wealthier children, both boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century.[60] A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period.[11][62][63][16][64][11][65][66] Other popular forms of entertainment included brass bands,[67] circuses,[68] "spectacles" (alleged paranormal activities),[69] amateur nature collecting,[70][71] gentlemen's clubs for wealthier men,[72] and seaside holidays for the middle class.[73] Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era.[74] They became important to male identity.[75] Popular sports of the period included cricket,[76] cycling, croquet, horse-riding, and many water activities.[77] Opportunities for leisure increased as restrictions were placed on maximum working hours, wages increased and routine annual leave became increasingly common.[78][79]

Economy, industry, and trade

Further information: Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era; Industrial revolution; and Second industrial revolution

Crew stood with a railway engine (1873)

Prior to the industrial revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with a wide range of new inventions being developed.[2] This technological advancement led to Great Britain becoming the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time.[3] Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's "Golden Years",[80][81] with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery along with exports to the empire and elsewhere.[82] The positive economic conditions, as well as a fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers led to relative social stability.[82][83] Government involvement in the economy was limited.[83] It wasn't until the post-World War II period around a century later that the country experienced substantial economic growth again.[81] However, whilst industry was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre.[83] Historian Llewellyn Woodward concluded that whilst the quality of life was improving by the "golden years" conditions and housing for the working classes "were still a disgrace to an age of plenty."[84] Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century; real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 percent higher in 1901, compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831, to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.[85]

Slum area in Glasgow (1871)

19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution.[85] The rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London.[86][87] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.[88] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one which devastated Ireland in the 1840s.[89][90][91] Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation that:[92]

Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room

This illustration of a child drawer (a type of hurrier) pulling a coal tub was originally published in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report.

The early Victorian era before the reforms of the 1840s became notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps.[93][94] The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low wages.[92] Reformers wanted the children in school: in 1840 only about 20 percent of the children in London had any schooling.[95] By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school).[60] From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education though these were often difficult to enforce in practise.[96] It was only in the 1870s and 1880s that children began to be compelled into school.[60]

Knowledge and public health

Main articles: Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era and Demographics of the Victorian era

Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution (c.1855)

The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy but it look a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal society began to solely admit professionals from 1847 onwards. Biologist Thomas Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living through being a scientist alone.[58] The Victorians respected science seeing it as something which could improve society and being a scientist was a prestigious occupation.[97][98][58] Significant advancements took place in various fields of research including statistics,[99] elasticity,[100] refrigeration,[101] natural history,[102] electricity[103] and logic.[104]

Britain was advanced in engineering and technology.[105][106] The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system. This system which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.[107] Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.[108] The railways were important economically in the Victorian era allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around stimulating trade and industry.[109] Britain's engineers were contracted around the world to build railways.[105][106] Financing railways around the world became a speciality of London's financiers. They maintained an ownership share in these railways which were ultimately largely liquidated in the early part of the First World War to contribute to the war effort.[110][111]

Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (circa 1850s or 60s)

Improvements were made over time to housing along with the management of sewage and water.[112][113] A gas network for lighting and heating was introduced in the 1880s.[114] Medicine advanced rapidly during the 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time.[115] Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew.[4] In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.[116] Britain experienced rapid population growth during the Victorian era.[117] The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century.[118][119] Various factors are considered contributary to this including rising fertility rate,[120] falling infant mortality,[121] the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during the 19th century for the first time in history,[122] improved nutrition,[123] and a lower overall mortality rate.[124] The population of Ireland shrank significantly mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[125]

Moral standards

See also: Victorian morality and Women in the Victorian era

If we lift our skirts they level their eye-glasses at our ankles (1854), cartoon suggesting that men saw women lifting their dresses as a titillating opportunity to see some of their body shape.

Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century with good manners and self restraint becoming much more common.[126] Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as the major conflicts with France Britain participated in during the early 19th century meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on the war effort and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement.[127] Their is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society.[128][129] For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples co-habited before marriage.[130]

Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals.[131][132][133] Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers on the 1830s and 1840s.[134][135] Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection.[136] Contrary to popular conception, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation.[137] The development of police forces led to a rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century.[138] Male sexuality became a favorite subject of study by medical researchers.[139] All male homosexual acts were made illegal for the first time.[140] At a time when there were relatively few job options for women, some particularly poorer women without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves.[141] Estimates vary, but in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported an estimation of 8,600 prostitutes in London alone in 1857.[142] Whilst this caused a moral panic in some sections of public life , their were some dissenting voices at the time. Women suspected of prostitution were for a period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for STDs and detainment if they were found to be infected.[141]

See also

History portal

flag United Kingdom portal

Victorian era portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Victorian era.

Belle Époque, in France

Gilded Age, in the United States

Hair museum

History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom

Historiography of the British Empire

Historiography of the United Kingdom

Horror Victorianorum

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

Imperialism

Pax Britannica

List of Victorian era British generals

Neo-Victorian

Social history of England

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland covers politics and diplomacy

Victorian cemeteries

Victorian decorative arts

Victorian fashion

Victorian literature

Victorian morality

Victoriana

Women in the Victorian era

Notes

 A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately.

Citations

 Dixon, Nicholas (2010). "From Georgian to Victorian". History Review. 2010 (68): 34–38. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013.

 Dutton, Edward; Woodley of Menie, Michael (2018). "Chapter 7: How Did Selection for Intelligence Go Into Reverse?". At Our Wits' End: Why We're Becoming Less Intelligent and What It Means for the Future. Great Britain: Imprint Academic. pp. 85, 95–6. ISBN 9781845409852.

 Atterbury, Paul (17 February 2011). "Victorian Technology". BBC History. Retrieved 13 October 2020.

 Robinson, Bruce (17 February 2011). "Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory". BBC History. Retrieved 13 October 2020.

 The UK and future Archived 15 February 2006 at the UK Government Web Archive, Government of the United Kingdom

 A. K. Cairncross, The Scottish Economy: A Statistical Account of Scottish Life by Members of the Staff of Glasgow University (Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1953), p. 10.

 "Ireland – Population Summary". Homepage.tinet.ie. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010.

 Exiles and Emigrants Archived 22 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. National Museum of Australia

 Daniels, Morna. "Aspects of the Victorian Book: Children's Books". British Library. Retrieved 10 October 2020.

 Eliot, Simon. "Aspects of the Victorian Book: Introduction". British Library. Retrieved 8 October 2020.

 "Aspects of the Victorian book: Magazines for Women". British Library. Retrieved 23 October 2020.

 John Wolffe (1997). Religion in Victorian Britain: Culture and empire. Volume V. Manchester University Press. pp. 129–30. ISBN 9780719051845. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.

 Lawrence James, The rise and fall of the British Empire (1994) pp 169–318.

 E.A. Benians et al. eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol. iii: The Empire – Commonwealth 1870–1919' (1959) pp 1–16. online

 J. Holland Rose et al. eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol-ii: The Growth of the New Empire 1783–1870 (1940) pp v–ix. online

 Plunkett, John; et al., eds. (2012). Victorian Literature: A Sourcebook. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 2.

 Hewitt, Martin (Spring 2006). "Why the Notion of Victorian Britain Does Make Sense". Victorian Studies. 48 (3): 395–438. doi:10.2979/VIC.2006.48.3.395. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.

 M Sadleir, Trollope (London 1945) p. 17

 M Sadleir, Trollope (London 1945) p. 18-19

 M Sadleir, Trollope (London 1945) p. 13 and p. 32

 M Sadleir, Trollope (London 1945) pp. 25–30

 G M Trevelyan, History of England (London 1926) p. 650

 Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2000. pp. 248–250

 "Notes Upon 'the Representation of the People Act, 1867' (30 & 31 Vict. C. 102.): With Appendices Concerning the Antient Rights, the Rights Conferred by the 2 & 3 Will. IV C. 45, Population, Rental, Rating, and the Operation of the Repealed Enactments as to Compound Householders", Thomas Chisholm Anstey, pp. 26, 169–172.

 National Geographic (2007). Essential Visual History of the World. National Geographic Society. pp. 290–92. ISBN 978-1-4262-0091-5.

 Kinealy, Christine (1994), This Great Calamity, Gill & Macmillan, p. xv

 Lusztig, Michael (July 1995). "Solving Peel's Puzzle: Repeal of the Corn Laws and Institutional Preservation". Comparative Politics. 27 (4): 393–408. doi:10.2307/422226. JSTOR 422226.

 Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, MUMBAI. pp. 60–61.

 Swisher, ed., Victorian England, pp. 248–50.

 J. Holland Rose et al. eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol-ii: The Growth of the New Empire 1783–1870 (1940) pp v–ix. online

 "Queen Victoria: The woman who redefined Britain's monarchy". BBC Teach. Retrieved 12 October 2020.

 Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind, p. 1

 On the interactions of evangelicalism and utilitarianism see Élie Halévy, A History of the English People in 1815 (1924) 585–95; also 3:213–15.

 Wohl, Anthony S. (1978). The Victorian family: structure and stresses. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9780856644382.

Cited in: Summerscale, Kate (2008). The suspicions of Mr. Whicher or the murder at Road Hill House. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 109–110. ISBN 9780747596486. (novel)

 K. Theodore Hoppen, The mid-Victorian generation, 1846–1886 (2000), pp 316ff.

 Boston, Michelle (12 February 2019). "Five Victorian paintings that break tradition in their celebration of love". USC Dornsife. University of Southern California. Retrieved 18 December 2020.

 Robyn Ryle (2012). Questioning gender: a sociological exploration. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE/Pine Forge Press. pp. 342–43. ISBN 978-1-4129-6594-1.

 Susan Rubinow Gorsky, Femininity to Feminism: Women and Literature in the Nineteenth Century (1992)

 Gray, F. Elizabeth (2004). ""Angel of the House" in Adams, ed". Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era. 1: 40–41.

 "A history of child protection". A history of child protection. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

 G.M. Young, Victorian England: Portrait of an Age (1936, 2nd ed, 1953), pp 1–6.

 Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement 1783–1867 (1957) pp 236–85.

 John Roach, "Liberalism and the Victorian Intelligentsia." Cambridge Historical Journal 13#1 (1957): 58–81. online.

 Young, Victorian England: Portrait of an Age pp 10–12.

 On the interactions of evangelicalism and utilitarianism see Élie Halévy, A History of the English People in 1815 (1924) 585–95; see pp 213–15.

 Llewellyn Woodward, The Age of Reform, 1815–1870 (1962), pp 28, 78–90, 446, 456, 464–65.

 D. W. Bebbington, The Nonconformist Conscience: Chapel and Politics, 1870–1914 (George Allen & Unwin, 1982)

 Glaser, John F. (1958). "English Nonconformity and the Decline of Liberalism". The American Historical Review. 63 (2): 352–363. doi:10.2307/1849549. JSTOR 1849549.

 Wykes, David L. (2005). "Introduction: Parliament and Dissent from the Restoration to the Twentieth Century". Parliamentary History. 24 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1750-0206.2005.tb00399.x.

 Owen Chadwick, The Victorian church (1966) 1:7–9, 47–48.

 Sally Mitchell, Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia (2011), p 547

 G. I. T. Machin, "Resistance to Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, 1828." Historical Journal 22#1 (1979): 115–139.

 Davis, R. W. (1966). "The Strategy of "Dissent" in the Repeal Campaign, 1820–1828". The Journal of Modern History. 38 (4): 374–393. doi:10.1086/239951. JSTOR 1876681. S2CID 154716174.

 Olive Anderson, "Gladstone's Abolition of Compulsory Church Rates: a Minor Political Myth and its Historiographical Career." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 25#2 (1974): 185–198.

 Richard Helmstadter, "The Nonconformist Conscience" in Peter Marsh, ed., The Conscience of the Victorian State (1979) pp 144–47.

 "Coleridge's Religion". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 10 August 2022.

 Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church: Vol 1 1829–1859 (1966) pp 487–89.

 Lewis, Christopher (2007). "Chapter 5: Energy and Entropy: The Birth of Thermodynamics". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3.

 Eisen, Sydney (1990). "The Victorian Crisis of Faith and the Faith That was Lost". In Helmstadter, Richard J.; Lightman, Bernard (eds.). Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 2–9. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-10974-6_2. ISBN 9781349109746.

 Lloyd, Amy (2007). "Education, Literacy and the Reading Public" (PDF). University of Cambridge.

 "15 Crucial Events in the History of English Schools". Oxford Royale. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2017.

 "Aspects of the Victorian book: the novel". British Library. Retrieved 23 October 2020.

 McGillis, Roderick (6 May 2016). "Children's Literature - Victorian Literature". Oxford Bibliographies. Retrieved 28 October 2020.

 John, Juliet, ed. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Victorian Literary Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2.

 "British Library". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 22 April 2022.

 "British Library". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 22 April 2022.

 Hazel Conway, People's parks: the design and development of Victorian parks in Britain (Cambridge University Press, 1991)

 Brenda Assael, The circus and Victorian society (U of Virginia Press, 2005)

 Alison Winter, Mesmerized: powers of mind in Victorian Britain (U of Chicago Press, 2000)

 Lynn L. Merrill, The romance of Victorian natural history (Oxford University Press, 1989)

 Simon Naylor, "The field, the museum and the lecture hall: the spaces of natural history in Victorian Cornwall." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (2002) 27#4 pp: 494–513. online Archived 17 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine

 Peter Bailey, Leisure and class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (Routledge, 2014)

 John K. Walton, The English seaside resort. A social history 1750–1914 (Leicester University Press, 1983)

 William J. Baker, "The state of British sport history". Journal of Sport History 10.1 (1983): 53–66. online Archived 12 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine

 Maguire, Joe (1986). "Images of manliness and competing ways of living in late Victorian and Edwardian Britain". International Journal of the History of Sport. 3 (3): 265–287. doi:10.1080/02649378608713604.

 Keith A. P. Sandiford, Cricket and the Victorians (Routledge Press, 1994).

 "Victorian Games & Sports, Tennis, Cricket, Football, Croquet, Cycling" in Victorian-Era.org Online Archived 6 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine

 G. R. Searle, A New England?: Peace and War, 1886–1918 (Oxford University Press, 2004), 529–70.

 Hugh Cunningham, Time, work and leisure: Life changes in England since 1700 (2014)

 Bernard Porter, Britannia's Burden: The Political Evolution of Modern Britain 1851–1890 (1994) ch 3

 Hobsbawn, Eric (1995). "Chapter Nine: The Golden Years". The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991. Abacus. ISBN 9780349106717.

 F. M. L. Thompson, Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (1988) pp. 211–214.

 Porter, ch. 1–3; K Theodore Hoppen, The Mid-Victorian Generation: 1846–1886 (1998), ch 1 to 3, 9–11

 Llewellyn Woodward, The Age of Reform, 1815–1870 (2nd ed. 1962) p 629

 J. A. R. Marriott, Modern England: 1885–1945 (4th ed., 1948) p 166.

 Dyos, H. J. (1968). "The Speculative Builders and Developers of Victorian London". Victorian Studies. 11: 641–690. JSTOR 3825462.

 Christopher Powell, The British building industry since 1800: An economic history (Taylor & Francis, 1996).

 Kemp, P. (1982). "Housing landlordism in late nineteenth-century Britain". Environment and Planning A. 14 (11): 1437–1447. doi:10.1068/a141437. S2CID 154957991.

 Dyos, H. J. (1967). "The Slums of Victorian London". Victorian Studies. 11 (1): 5–40. JSTOR 3825891.

 Anthony S. Wohl, The eternal slum: housing and social policy in Victorian London (1977).

 Martin J. Daunton, House and home in the Victorian city: working class housing, 1850–1914 (1983).

 Barbara Daniels, Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era Archived 6 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine

 Jane Humphries, Childhood & Child Labour in The British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge UP, 2016).

 Del Col, Laura (1988). "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century [sic] England". The Victorian Web. Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

 Child Labor Archived 21 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine David Cody, Hartwick College

 May, Trevor (1994). The Victorian Schoolroom. Great Britain: Shire Publications. pp. 3, 29.

 Lionel Thomas Caswell Rolt, Victorian engineering (Penguin, 1974).

 Herbert L. Sussman, Victorian technology: invention, innovation, and the rise of the machine (ABC-CLIO, 2009)

 Katz, Victor (2009). "Chapter 23: Probability and Statistics in the Nineteenth Century". A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison-Wesley. pp. 824–30. ISBN 978-0-321-38700-4.

 Kline, Morris (1972). "28.7: Systems of Partial Differential Equations". Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 696–7. ISBN 0-19-506136-5.

 Lewis, Christoper (2007). "Chapter 7: Black Bodies, Free Energy, and Absolute Zero". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3.

 Lewis, Christopher (2007). "Chapter 5: Energy and Entropy: The Birth of Thermodynamics". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33332-3.

 Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 8: Forces and Fields". Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33358-3.

 Katz, Victor (2009). "21.3: Symbolic Algebra". A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison-Wesley. pp. 738–9. ISBN 978-0-321-38700-4.

 Lionel Thomas Caswell Rolt, Victorian engineering (Penguin, 1974).

 Herbert L. Sussman, Victorian technology: invention, innovation, and the rise of the machine (ABC-CLIO, 2009)

 Cite error: The named reference Atterbury-20112 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

 Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Waves". Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33358-3.

 John R. Kellett, The impact of railways on Victorian cities (Routledge, 2007).

 John R. Kellett, The impact of railways on Victorian cities (Routledge, 2007).

 John R. Kellett, The impact of railways on Victorian cities (Routledge, 2007).

 Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered lives: public health in Victorian Britain (JM Dent and Sons, 1983)

 Robinson, Bruce (17 February 2011). "Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory". BBC History. Retrieved 13 October 2020.

 Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered lives: public health in Victorian Britain (JM Dent and Sons, 1983)

 Robinson, Bruce (17 February 2011). "Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory". BBC History. Retrieved 13 October 2020.

 Robinson, Bruce (17 February 2011). "Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory". BBC History. Retrieved 13 October 2020.

 "Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population: Library of Economics"

 The UK and future Archived 15 February 2006 at the UK Government Web Archive, Government of the United Kingdom

 A. K. Cairncross, The Scottish Economy: A Statistical Account of Scottish Life by Members of the Staff of Glasgow University (Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1953), p. 10.

 Simon Szreter, Fertility, class and gender in Britain, 1860–1940 (Cambridge University Press, 2002).

 Dutton, Edward; Woodley of Menie, Michael (2018). "Chapter 7: How Did Selection for Intelligence Go Into Reverse?". At Our Wits' End: Why We're Becoming Less Intelligent and What It Means for the Future. Great Britain: Imprint Academic. pp. 85, 95–6. ISBN 9781845409852.

 Szreter, Simon (1988). "The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c.1850–1914: A re-interpretation of the role of public health". Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. doi:10.1093/shm/1.1.1. S2CID 34704101. (subscription required)

 Szreter, Simon (1988). "The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c.1850–1914: A re-interpretation of the role of public health". Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. doi:10.1093/shm/1.1.1. S2CID 34704101. (subscription required)

 Szreter, Simon (1988). "The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c.1850–1914: A re-interpretation of the role of public health". Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. doi:10.1093/shm/1.1.1. S2CID 34704101. (subscription required)

 "Ireland – Population Summary". Homepage.tinet.ie. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010.

 Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society (1969) p. 280.

 Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement: 1783–1867 (1959), pp. 66–74, 286–87, 436

 Rebecca Probert, "Living in Sin", BBC History Magazine (September 2012); G. Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester U.P. 2008)

 Ian C. Bradley, The Call to Seriousness: The Evangelical Impact on the Victorians (1976) pp. 106–109

 Rebecca Probert, "Living in Sin", BBC History Magazine (September 2012); G. Frost, Living in Sin: Cohabiting as Husband and Wife in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester U.P. 2008)

 "London Police Act 1839, Great Britain Parliament. Section XXXI, XXXIV, XXXV, XLII". Archived from the original on 24 April 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.

 M. B. McMullan, "The Day the Dogs Died in London" The London Journal: A Review of Metropolitan Society Past and Present (1998) 23#1 pp 32–40 https://doi.org/10.1179/ldn.1998.23.1.32

 Rothfels, Nigel (2002), Representing Animals, Indiana University Press, p. 12, ISBN 978-0-253-34154-9. Chapter: 'A Left-handed Blow: Writing the History of Animals' by Erica Fudge

 Georgina Battiscombe, Shaftesbury: A Biography of the Seventh Earl 1801–1885 (1988) pp. 88–91.

 Kelly, David; et al. (2014). Business Law. Routledge. p. 548. ISBN 9781317935124.

 C. J. Litzenberger; Eileen Groth Lyon (2006). The Human Tradition in Modern Britain. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 142–43. ISBN 978-0-7425-3735-4.

 Draznin, Yaffa Claire (2001). Victorian London's Middle-Class Housewife: What She Did All Day (#179). Contributions in Women's Studies. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-0-313-31399-8.

 Sean Brady, Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Britain, 1861–1913 (2005).

 Ivan Crozier, "Nineteenth-century British psychiatric writing about homosexuality before Havelock Ellis: The missing story." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 63#1 (2008): 65–102.

 F. Barry Smith, "Labouchere's amendment to the Criminal Law Amendment bill." Australian Historical Studies 17.67 (1976): 165–173.

 Walkowitz, Judith (1980). Prostitution and Victorian Society. Cambridge University Press.

 Acton, William (1857). Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects (Reprint of the Second Edition with new biographical note ed.). London: Frank Cass (published 1972). ISBN 0-7146-2414-4.

Further reading

General

Adams, James Eli, ed. Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era (4 Vol. 2004), short essays on a wide range of topics by experts

Bailey, Peter. Leisure and class in Victorian England: Rational recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (Routledge, 2014).

Best, Geoffrey. Mid-Victorian Britain, 1851-1875 (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971)

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830-1902 (1970) online, survey plus primary documents

Briggs, Asa. The Age of Improvement 1783–1867 (1979), Wide-ranging older survey emphasizing the reforms. online

Cevasco, G. A. ed. The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of British Literature, Art, and Culture (1993) 736pp; short articles by experts

Chadwick, Owen. The Victorian Church (2 vol 1966), covers all denominations online

Clark, G. Kitson The making of Victorian England (1963). online

Ensor, R. C. K. England, 1870–1914 (1936) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49856 online] influential scholarly survey

Gregg, Pauline. A Social and Economic History of Britain: 1760–1950 (1950) online

Harrison, J.F.C. Early Victorian Britain 1832–1851 (Fontana, 1979).

Harrison, J.F.C. Late Victorian Britain 1875–1901 (Routledge, 2013).

Heffer, Simon. High Minds: The Victorians and the Birth of Modern Britain (2014), survey to 1880.

Heffer, Simon. The Age of Decadence: Britain 1880 to 1914 (2017), wide-ranging scholarly survey.

Heilmann, Ann, and Mark Llewellyn, eds. Neo-Victorianism: The Victorians in the Twenty-First Century, 1999–2009 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 323 pages; looks at recent literary & cinematic, interest in the Victorian era, including magic, sexuality, theme parks, and the postcolonial

Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783–1846 (New Oxford History of England. 2006); in-depth scholarly survey, 784pp.

Hobsbawm, Eric (1997). The Age of Capital, 1848–1875. London: Abacus.

McCord, Norman and Bill Purdue. British History, 1815–1914 (2nd ed. 2007), 612 pp online, university textbook

Paul, Herbert. History of Modern England, 1904-6 (5 vols) online free

Perkin, Harold. The Origins of Modern English Society: 1780–1880 (1969) online

Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886 (New Oxford History of England) (2000), comprehensive scholarly history excerpt and text search

Roberts, Clayton and David F. Roberts. A History of England, Volume 2: 1688 to the present (2013) university textbook; 1985 edition online

Somervell, D. C. English thought in the nineteenth century (1929) online

Steinbach, Susie L. Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain (2012) excerpt and text search

Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England (2000) 20 excerpts from leading primary and secondary sources regarding literary, cultural, technical, political, and social themes. online free

Daily life and culture

Aston, Jennifer, Amanda Capern, and Briony McDonagh. "More than bricks and mortar: female property ownership as economic strategy in mid-nineteenth-century urban England." Urban History 46.4 (2019): 695–721. online

Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5.

Houghton, Walter E. (1957). The Victorian frame of mind, 1830–1870. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00122-8.

May, Trevor (1994). The Victorian Schoolroom. Great Britain: Shire Publications. pp. 3, 29.

Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4.

O'Gorman, Francis, ed. The Cambridge companion to Victorian culture (2010)

Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian culture and society: the essential glossary (2003).

Thompson, F. M. L. Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (1988) Strong on family, marriage, childhood, houses, and play.

Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016).

Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7

Young, Gerard Mackworth, ed. Early Victorian England 1830-1865 (2 vol 1934) scholarly surveys of cultural history. vol 2 online

Literature

Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. (1974) online free

Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature (2015).

Flint, Kay. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014).

Horsman, Alan. The Victorian Novel (Oxford History of English Literature, 1991)

Politics

Aydelotte, William O. “Parties and Issues in Early Victorian England.” Journal of British Studies, 5#2 1966, pp. 95–114. online

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970), contains a short narrative history and 147 "Selected documents" on pp 195–504.

Boyd, Kelly and Rohan McWilliam, eds. The Victorian Studies Reader (2007) 467pp; articles and excerpts by scholars excerpts and text search

Bright, J. Franck. A History of England. Period 4: Growth of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880 (1902) online 608pp; highly detailed older political narrative

A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction, Victoria, 1880‒1901 (1904) online

Brock, M. G. "Politics at the Accession of Queen Victoria" History Today (1953) 3#5 pp 329–338 online.

Brown, David, Robert Crowcroft, and Gordon Pentland, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Modern British Political History, 1800–2000 (2018) excerpt

Burton, Antoinette, ed. Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6

Marriott, J. A. R. England Since Waterloo (1913); focus on politics and diplomacy; online

Martin, Howard.Britain in the 19th Century (Challenging History series, 2000) 409pp; textbook; emphasizing politics, diplomacy and use of primary sources

Trevelyan, G. M. British History in the Nineteenth Century and After (1782–1901) (1922). online very well written scholarly survey

Walpole, Spencer. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (6 vol. 1878–86), very well written political narrative to 1855; online

Walpole, Spencer. History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904–1908) covers 1856–1880; online

Woodward, E. L. The Age of Reform: 1815–1870 (1954) comprehensive survey online

Young, G. M. "Mid-Victorianism" History Today (1951) 1#1 pp 11–17, online.

Crime and punishment

Auerbach, Sascha (2015). "'Beyond the pale of mercy': Victorian penal culture, police court missionaries, and the origins of probation in England" (PDF). Law and History Review. 33 (3): 621–663. doi:10.1017/S0738248015000280. S2CID 142101025.

Bailey, Victor. Policing and punishment in nineteenth century Britain (2015).

Churchill, David. Crime Control and Everyday Life in the Victorian City (Oxford UP, 2018)

Emsley, Clive. Crime and society in England: 1750–1900 (2013).

Emsley, Clive. "Crime in 19th Century Britain." History Today 38 (1988): 40+

Emsley, Clive. The English Police: A Political and Social History (2nd ed. 1996) also published as The Great British Bobby: A History of British Policing from the 18th Century to the Present (2010)excerpt

Fox, Lionel W. (1998). The English Prison and Borstal Systems. p. 46. ISBN 9780415177382.

Gatrell, V. A. C. "Crime, authority and the policeman-state." in E.M.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge social history of Britain 1750-1950: Volume 3 (1990). 3:243-310

Hay, Douglas. "Crime and justice in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century England." Crime and Justice 2 (1980): 45–84. online

Kilday, Anne-Marie. "Women and crime." Women's History, Britain 1700–1850 ed. Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, (Routledge, 2004) pp. 186–205.

May, Margaret. "Innocence and experience: the evolution of the concept of juvenile delinquency in the mid-nineteenth century." Victorian Studies 17.1 (1973): 7–29. online

Radzinowicz, Leon. A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 (5 vol. 1948–1976)

Radzinowicz, Leon and Roger Hood The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian England (1990)

Shore, Heather (2000). "The Idea of Juvenile Crime in 19th Century England". History Today. 50 (6): 21–27.

Shore, Heather. "Crime, policing and punishment." in Chris Williams, ed., A companion to nineteenth-century Britain (2007): 381–395. excerpt

Storch, R. D. (1980). "Crime And Justice in 19th-Century England". History Today. 30: 32–37.

Taylor, James (2018). "White-collar crime and the law in nineteenth-century Britain" (PDF). Business History. 60 (3): 343–360. doi:10.1080/00076791.2017.1339691. S2CID 157785396.

Tobias, J. J. Crime and Industrial Society in the Nineteenth Century (1967) .

Tobias, J.J. ed, Nineteenth-century crime: prevention and punishment (1972) primary sources.

Taylor, Howard. "Rationing crime: the political economy of criminal statistics since the 1850s." Economic history review (1998) 51#3 569–590. online

Historiography

Burton, Antoinette (2012). "Victorian History: Some Experiments with Syllabi". Victorian Studies. 54 (2): 305–311. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.54.2.305. S2CID 142936859.

Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online

Gooch, Brison D. (1973). "Recent Literature on Queen Victoria's Little Wars". Victorian Studies. 17 (2): 217–224. JSTOR 3826186.

Goodlad, Lauren M. E. (2000). "'A Middle Class Cut into Two': Historiography and Victorian National Character". ELH. 67 (1): 143–178. doi:10.1353/elh.2000.0003. S2CID 161748511.

Homans, Margaret, and Adrienne Munich, eds. Remaking Queen Victoria (Cambridge University Press, 1997)

Kent, Christopher (1996). "Victorian social history: post-Thompson, post-Foucault, postmodern". Victorian Studies. 1996 (1): 97–133. JSTOR 3828799.

Mays, Kelly J (2011). "Looking backward, looking forward: the Victorians in the rear-view mirror of future history". Victorian Studies. 53 (3): 445–456. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.53.3.445. S2CID 143253052.

Moore, D. C. "In Search of a New Past: 1820 – 1870," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 255–298

Parry, J. P. (1983). "The State of Victorian Political History". Historical Journal. 26 (2): 469–484. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00024201. JSTOR 2638778. S2CID 162264240.

Sandiford, Keith A. P. (1981). "The Victorians at play: Problems in historiographical methodology". Journal of Social History. 1981 (2): 271–288. doi:10.1353/jsh/15.2.271. JSTOR 3787112.

Stansky, Peter. "British History: 1870 – 1914," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 299–326

Taylor, Miles (2020). "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria". Journal of British Studies. 59 (1): 121–135. doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245. S2CID 213433777.

Vernon, James (2005). "Historians and the Victorian Studies Question". Victorian Studies. 47 (2): 272–79. doi:10.2979/VIC.2005.47.2.272. S2CID 145307328.

Webb, R. K. Modern England: from the 18th century to the present (1968) online widely recommended university textbook

Primary sources

Black, E.C. ed. British politics in the nineteenth century (1969) online

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970.) pp 195–504 are 147 selected documents

Hicks, Geoff, et al. eds. Documents on Conservative Foreign Policy, 1852–1878 (2013), 550 documents excerpt

Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938), 608pp of primary sources online

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Victorian era.

Free online books on the Victorian era

Victorians British Library website exploring the Victorian period.

Victorians.co.uk Victorian Era History Guide.

Mostly-Victorian.com A collection of primary-source documents drawn from Victorian periodicals.

The Victorian Dictionary

The Victorian Web

Victorians British Library history resources about the Victorian era, featuring collection material and text by Liza Picard.

Timelines: Sources from history – British Library interactive

Collection: "Victorian Studies" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

"What Happened During the Victorian Era?" resources from the Royal Museums Greenwich

Victorian mate choice, by evolutionary psychologist Geoffrey Miller

vte

United Kingdom articles

History

Chronology

FormationGeorgian eraVictorian eraEdwardian eraFirst World WarInterwarSecond World War civilianmilitaryPostwar politicalsocialSince 1979 politicalsocial

By topic

EconomicEmpireForeign relations 1814–1919MaritimeMilitary

Geography

Administrative

Counties of the United KingdomCountries of the United KingdomCrown DependenciesOverseas territoriesCity statusTownsFormer colonies

Physical

British Isles terminologyGreat BritainClimate changeCoastlineGeologyLakes and lochsMountainsRiversVolcanoes

Resources

AgricultureEnergy/Renewable energy biodieselcoalgeothermalhydraulic frac.hydroelectricitymarineNorth Sea oilsolarwindFishing EnglishScottishWelshHuntingMaterials floraforestrymining

Politics

ConstitutionDevolutionElectionsForeign relationsHuman rightsJudiciaryLawLaw enforcementMonarchy monarchsNationalityParliament House of CommonsHouse of LordsPolitical partiesFemale party leadersPolitical scandalsShadow Cabinet

Government

Cabinet listCivil serviceDepartmentsMinisters listPrime Minister list

Military

His Majesty's Naval ServiceArmyRoyal Air ForceWeapons of mass destruction

Economy

Banks Bank of EnglandBudgetEconomic geographyManufacturingPound sterling (currency)Science and technologyStock exchanges (London Exchange)TaxationTelecommunicationsTourismTransport

Society

Affordability of housingCrimeDemographyDrug policyEducationEnvironmental issuesEthnic groupsHealthImmigrationInnovationLanguagesPovertyProstitutionPublic holidaysRacismSocial careSocial class

Culture

ArtAnthemCinemaCuisineIdentityLiteratureMediaMusicReligionSportSymbolsTheatreStereotypes of the BritishWorld Heritage SitesAnglosphere

Countries of the United Kingdom

OutlineIndex

CategoryPortal

vte

Queen Victoria

Events

Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball

Reign

Bedchamber crisisPrime ministersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsDeath and state funeral Mausoleum

Family

Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, German Empress (daughter)Edward VII (son)Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)DescendantsRoyal descendants

Early life

Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy

Honours

PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant)

Depictions

Film

Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020)

Television

Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019)

Stage

Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972)

Statues and

memorials

List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch

Poetry

"The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897)

Songs

VictoriaChoral Songs

Stamps

British

Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue

Colonial

Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps

Related

Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond CrownVictoriana

← William IVEdward VII →

vte

Recessions in the United States and Commonwealth of Nations countries

Balance sheet recessionBusiness cycleChronic inflationDeflationDepressionDisinflationEconomic expansion U.S. expansionsEconomic recoveryGeneral glutGlobal recessionInflationRecession U.K. recessionsU.S. recessionsRecession shapesRolling recessionShock DemandSupplyStagflationYield curve Inverted yield curve

Commercial Revolution

(1000–1760)

Great Slump (1430–1490)Great Frost of 1709

1st Industrial Revolution

(1760–1840)

British credit crisis of 1772-1773 1772–1774; EnglandScotlandThirteen Colonies1785–1788Copper Panic of 1789/Panic of 1792 (1789–1793)Panic of 1796–1797 (1796–1799)1802–18041807–18101812Post-Napoleonic Depression (1815–1821)1822–23Panic of 1825 (1825–1826)1828–291833–34Panic of 1837 (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)

Civil War-era United States/

Victorian Britain

(1840–1870)

1845–46Panic of 1847 (1847–1848)1853–54Panic of 1857 (1857–1858)Panic of 1866 (1865–1867)Black Friday (1869–1870)

2nd Industrial Revolution

(1870–1914)

Long Depression 1873–1879; United KingdomUnited StatesDepression of 1882–18851887–88Baring crisis (1890–1891)Panic of 1893 (1893–1897)1899–1900Panic of 1901 (1902–1904)Panic of 1907 (1907–1908)Panic of 1910–1911 (1910–1912)1913–14

Interwar period

(1918–1939)

Post–World War I recession (1918–1919)Depression of 1920–19211923–19241926–1927Great Depression 1929–1933; AustraliaCanadaIndiaNew ZealandSouth AfricaUnited KingdomUnited StatesRecession of 1937–1938

Post–WWII expansion

(1945–1973)

1945Recession of 1949 (1948–1949)Recession of 1953 (1953–1954)Recession of 1958 (1957–1958)Recession of 1960–1961Recession of 1969–1970

Great Inflation

(1973–1982)

1973–1975 recession United KingdomUnited StatesEarly 1980s recession 1980–1982; CanadaUnited KingdomUnited States

Great Moderation/

Great Regression

(1982–2007)

Early 1990s recession 1990–1991; AustraliaCanadaUnited KingdomUnited States1997 Asian financial crisisEarly 2000s recession (2001)

Digital Revolution

(2007–present)

Great Recession 2007–2009; AustraliaBangladeshCanadaIndiaMalaysiaNew ZealandPakistanSouth AfricaSri LankaUnited KingdomUnited StatesCOVID-19 recession 2020–present; AustraliaBangladeshBelizeBotswanaCanadaIndiaMalaysiaNamibiaNew ZealandSingaporeUnited KingdomUnited StatesZambia

Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata

GermanyIsraelUnited States

Categories: Victorian era Historical erasHistory of the United Kingdom by periodHistory of England by period19th century in England19th century in the United Kingdom

1891

Millennium: 2nd millennium

Centuries:

18th century19th century 20th century

Decades:

1870s1880s1890s1900s1910s

Years:

1888188918901891189218931894

1891 in topic

Humanities

Archaeology – Architecture – Art

Film - Literature – Music - (jazz)

By country

Australia – Belgium – Brazil – Bulgaria – Canada – Denmark – France – Germany – Mexico – New Zealand – Norway – Philippines – Portugal – Russia – South Africa – Spain – Sweden – United Kingdom – United States – Venezuela

Other topics

Rail transport – Science – Sports

Lists of leaders

Sovereign states – State leaders – Territorial governors – Religious leaders

Birth and death categories

Births – Deaths

Establishments and disestablishments categories

Establishments – Disestablishments

Works category

Works

vte

1891 in various calendars

Gregorian calendar 1891

MDCCCXCI

Ab urbe condita 2644

Armenian calendar 1340

ԹՎ ՌՅԽ

Assyrian calendar 6641

Baháʼí calendar 47–48

Balinese saka calendar 1812–1813

Bengali calendar 1298

Berber calendar 2841

British Regnal year 54 Vict. 1 – 55 Vict. 1

Buddhist calendar 2435

Burmese calendar 1253

Byzantine calendar 7399–7400

Chinese calendar 庚寅年 (Metal Tiger)

4587 or 4527

    — to —

辛卯年 (Metal Rabbit)

4588 or 4528

Coptic calendar 1607–1608

Discordian calendar 3057

Ethiopian calendar 1883–1884

Hebrew calendar 5651–5652

Hindu calendars

 - Vikram Samvat 1947–1948

 - Shaka Samvat 1812–1813

 - Kali Yuga 4991–4992

Holocene calendar 11891

Igbo calendar 891–892

Iranian calendar 1269–1270

Islamic calendar 1308–1309

Japanese calendar Meiji 24

(明治24年)

Javanese calendar 1820–1821

Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 days

Korean calendar 4224

Minguo calendar 21 before ROC

民前21年

Nanakshahi calendar 423

Thai solar calendar 2433–2434

Tibetan calendar 阳金虎年

(male Iron-Tiger)

2017 or 1636 or 864

    — to —

阴金兔年

(female Iron-Rabbit)

2018 or 1637 or 865

Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1891.

1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1891st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 891st year of the 2nd millennium, the 91st year of the 19th century, and the 2nd year of the 1890s decade. As of the start of 1891, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

January–March

January 21: Hawaii, Queen Lili'Uokalani.

January 1

Paying of old age pensions begins in Germany.

A strike of 500 Hungarian steel workers occurs; 3,000 men are out of work as a consequence.

Germany takes formal possession of its new African territories.

January 2 – A. L. Drummond of New York is appointed Chief of the Treasury Secret Service.

January 4 – The Earl of Zetland issues a declaration regarding the famine in the western counties of Ireland.

January 5

The Australian shearers' strike, that leads indirectly to the foundation of the Australian Labor Party, begins.

A fight between the United States and Indians breaks out near Pine Ridge agency.

Henry B. Brown, of Michigan, is sworn in as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.

A fight between railway strikers and police breaks out at Motherwell, Scotland.

January 6 – Encounters continue, between strikers and the authorities at Glasgow.

January 7

General Miles' forces surround the natives in the Pine Ridge Reservation.

Secretary Tracy relieves Commander Reiter of his ship, on account of the Barrundia Affair.

The International Monetary Conference meets in Washington DC.

January 8 – Lieutenant Casey of the United States Army is killed by native Americans, at Pine Ridge.

January 9 – The great shoe strike in Rochester, New York is called off.

January 10 – in France, the Irish Nationalist leaders hold a conference at Boulogne. The French government promptly takes loan.

January 11

3,000 natives approach Pine Ridge with a view to surrender.

Mahoning Valley, Ohio, sixteen blast furnaces shut down, putting 10,000 men out of work.

Railroads and coke companies forced to lower prices.

January 12

Canada brings suit before the United States Supreme Court in re-seizures of vessels in the Bering Sea.

St. Mary's Cathedral dedicated in San Francisco.

January 13 – In California, Leland Stanford (Rep.) re-elected Senator.

January 14 – Conference of Native American chiefs with General Miles at Pine Ridge Reservation, the natives agree to surrender.

January 15 – Scottish railway strikers attempt to wreck a train near Greenock, Scotland.

January 16 – The Chilean Civil War of 1891 breaks out.[1]

January 17 – George Bancroft dies at Washington DC at age 91, all government buildings flying flags lower to half mast until after the funeral.

January 19

General Miles officially announces the end of the native outbreak and congratulates his troops.

A British squadron ordered to Chile.

January 20 – Jim Hogg becomes the first native Texan to be governor of that state.

January 27–May 2 – The Jamaica International Exhibition is held.[2]

January 29 – Liliuokalani is proclaimed Queen of Hawaii.

January 31 – The Portuguese republican revolution breaks out, in the northern city of Porto.

February – The Tobacco Protest begins in Iran.

February 14 – In the FA Cup quarter final in English Association football, a goal is deliberately stopped by handball on the goal line. An indirect free kick is awarded, since the penalty kick, proposed the previous year by William McCrum, has not yet been implemented. This event probably changes public opinion on the penalty kick, seen previously as an Irishman's motion.

February 15 – Allmänna Idrottsklubben (AIK) sports club is founded in Stockholm, Sweden.

February 21 – Springhill, Nova Scotia suffers a serious mining disaster.

March 3 – The International Copyright Act of 1891 is passed, by the 51st United States Congress.

March 9–12 – The Great Blizzard of 1891 in the south and west of England leads to extensive snow drifts and powerful storms off the south coast, with 14 ships sunk, and approximately 220 deaths attributed to the weather conditions.[3][4]

March 12 – Djurgårdens IF (DIF) sports club is founded in Stockholm.

March 14 – In New Orleans, a lynch mob storms the Old Parish Prison, and lynches 11 Italians arrested but found innocent of the murder of Police Chief David Hennessy.

March 17 – The British steamship SS Utopia, carrying Italian migrants to New York, sinks in the inner harbor of Gibraltar after collision with the battleship HMS Anson, killing 564.[5]

March 18 – The London–Paris telephone system officially opens.[6]

April–June

May 5: Tchaikovsky opens Carnegie Hall

April 1

The Wrigley Company is founded in Chicago.

The London–Paris telephone system is opened to the general public.[6]

April 5 – Census in the United Kingdom: 15.6 million people live in cities of 20,000 or more in England and Wales, and cities of 20,000 or more account for 54% of the total English population.

April 12 – The first official game in the Association football league of Argentina (1891 Argentine Primera División) is held in Caballito, Buenos Aires.[7]

April 23 – Chilean Civil War of 1891: Chilean ironclad Blanco Encalada is sunk at the Battle of Caldera Bay by torpedo boats.[8] This is the first ironclad warship lost to a self-propelled torpedo.[9]

May – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claims to be the Promised Messiah (the second coming of Jesus) and the Mahdi awaited in Islam.

May 1

Troops fire on a workers' May Day demonstration in support of the 8-hour workday in Fourmies, France, killing 9 and wounding 30.

The first Fascio dei lavoratori (Workers League) is founded by Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida in Catania, Sicily.

May 5 – The Music Hall in New York (later known as Carnegie Hall) has its grand opening and first public performance, with Peter Tchaikovsky as guest conductor.[10]

May 11 – Ōtsu incident: Tsesarevich Nikolay Alexandrovich (the future Czar Nicholas II) of Russia survives an assassination attempt while visiting Japan.

May 15 – Pope Leo XIII issues the encyclical Rerum novarum, on the rights and duties of capital and labor, resulting in the creation of many Christian Democrat parties throughout Europe.[11]

May 20 – Thomas Edison's prototype kinetoscope is first displayed at Edison's Laboratory, for a convention of the National Federation of Women's Clubs.

May 31 N.S. (May 19 O.S.) – In the Kuperovskaya district of Vladivostok, a grand ceremonial inauguration of construction work on the Trans-Siberian Railway is carried out by the Tsesarevich Nikolay Alexandrovich, and a religious service held.

June 1 – The Johnstown Inclined Plane opens in Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

June 15 – Minas Gerais was granted in 1891.

June 16 – John Abbott becomes Canada's third prime minister.

June 21 – The first long-distance transmission of alternating current is made, from the Ames power plant near Telluride, Colorado, by Lucien and Paul Nunn.

June 25 – Arthur Conan Doyle's detective Sherlock Holmes appears in The Strand Magazine (London) for the first time, in the issue dated July.[6]

May 20: Edison's kinetoscope.

July–September

July 10 – Erik Gustaf Boström becomes Prime Minister of Sweden.

July 30 – The Springboks rugby union team of South Africa play their first international test match against the Lions team of the British Isles, and win by 4–0.

July 30 – Serbian inventor, Nikola Tesla, becomes a naturalized American citizen at the age of 35.

August 27 – France and Russia conclude a defensive alliance.

September 14 – The first penalty kick is awarded in a football match; John Heath scores it for the Wolverhampton Wanderers.

September 18 – The Chilean Civil War of 1891 ends.

September 22 – The first hydropower plant of Finland was commissioned along the Tammerkoski rapids in Tampere, Pirkanmaa.[12][13]

September 28 – The C.A. Peñarol is founded in Montevideo, under the name of the CURCC (Central Uruguay Railway Cricket Club).

September 29 – Thyssen, as predecessor of Thyssen Krupp, a worldwide conglomerate, founded in Duisburg, Germany.[citation needed]

October–December

October – Eugène Dubois finds the first fragmentary bones of Pithecanthropus erectus (later redesignated Homo erectus), or "Java Man", at Trinil on the Solo River.[14]

October 1 –

Stanford University in California opens its doors.

October 1 Stanford University opens its doors.

Skansen is established as the world's first open-air museum by Artur Hazelius, on the island of Djurgården in Stockholm, Sweden.

October 20 – By order of Emperor Alexander III of Russia, the Senate of Finland granted town rights to Iisalmi.[15]

October 28 – The 8.0 Ms  Mino–Owari earthquake strikes the Gifu region of Japan. This oblique-slip event kills over 7,200, injures more than 17,000, and creates fault scarps that still remain visible.

October 30 – A personal care brand in Japan and Asia, Lion Corporation was founded, as predecessor name was Kobayashi Tomijirō Shōten (小林富次郎商店).[citation needed]

November 11 – Jindandao Incident: The Chinese Juu Uda League in Inner Mongolia massacres tens of thousands of Mongols, before being suppressed by government troops in late December.

November 15 – The constitution of the First Brazilian Republic is promulgated.

November 28 – The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers is organized in St. Louis, Missouri.

December 17 – Drexel University is inaugurated as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in Philadelphia.

December 22 – Asteroid 323 Brucia becomes the first asteroid discovered using photography.

Date unknown

Brahmin teacher and nationalist Bal Gangadhar Tilak begins agitation for Indian Home Rule.

James Naismith invents basketball in the United States.

Seattle University is established as the Immaculate Conception school.

The Auckland University Students' Association is founded in New Zealand.

Maria Skłodowska (later Marie Curie) enters the Sorbonne University.

Nikola Tesla invents the Tesla coil.

Michelin patents the removable pneumatic bicycle tire.[16]

Production of the Swiss Army Knife by Victorinox begins.

Philips founded in Eindhoven, Netherlands, for the production of carbon-filament lamps and other electro-technical products.[17]

The 1891 census of India is conducted.

New Mexico Military Institute is founded (as Goss Military Institute) in Roswell, New Mexico Territory.

Births

January–March

Zora Neale Hurston

Walther Bothe

Antonio Segni

José P. Laurel

Earl Warren

January 1 – Charles Bickford, American actor (d. 1967)[18]

January 7 – Zora Neale Hurston, African-American writer, anthropologist, ethnographer (d. 1960)[19]

January 8 – Walther Bothe, German physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 1957)[20]

January 13 – Miguel Pro, Mexican Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (d. 1927)[21]

January 22

Antonio Gramsci, Italian Communist writer, politician (d. 1937)[22]

Bruno Loerzer, German aviator, air force general (d. 1960)

January 23 – Marjorie Maynard, British artist and farmer (died 1975)

January 23 – Pavlo Tychyna, Ukrainian poet, translator, publicist, public activist, academician, and statesman. (d. 1967)

January 24 – Walter Model, German field marshal (d. 1945)

January 27 – Ilya Ehrenburg, Russian writer (d. 1967)

January 30 – Walter Beech, American pioneering aviator, aircraft manufacturer (d. 1950)

February 1 – Shigeru Fukudome, Japanese admiral (d. 1971)

February 2 – Antonio Segni, Italian politician, 34th Prime Minister of Italy (1955–1957, 1959–1960), 4th President of the Italian Republic (d. 1972)

February 5 – Renato Petronio, Italian rower (d. 1976)

February 9 – Ronald Colman, English actor (d. 1958)

February 11 – J. W. Hearne, English cricketer (d. 1965)

February 13 – Grant Wood, American painter (d. 1942)[23]

February 15 – Henry J. Knauf, American politician (d. 1950)

February 17 – Abraham Fraenkel, German-born Israeli mathematician, recipient of the Israel Prize (d. 1965)

February 21 – Seán Heuston, Irish rebel (d. 1916)

February 27 – David Sarnoff, Russian-born American broadcasting pioneer (d. 1971)

March 3 – Fritz Rumey, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1918)

March 9 – José P. Laurel, 3rd President of the Philippines (d. 1959)

March 10 – Sam Jaffe, American actor (d. 1984)

March 16 - Patsy Gallacher, Irish footballer (d. 1953)

March 19 – Earl Warren, American politician and Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1974)

March 24 – Rudolf Berthold, German fighter pilot (d. 1920)

March 26 – Will Wright, American actor (d. 1962)

March 28 – May Mabel Adamson, Australian principal (d. 1966)

March 29 – Yvan Goll, French lyricist, dramatist (d. 1950)

April–June

Ahmad bin Yahya

John A. Costello

April 2 – Max Ernst, German painter (d. 1976)

April 5 – Laura Vicuña, Chilean Roman Catholic holy figure and blessed (d. 1904)

April 7

Ole Kirk Christiansen, Danish founder of The Lego Group (d. 1958)

Minoru Ōta, Japanese admiral (d. 1945)

April 13 – Nella Larsen, American novelist (d. 1964)

April 14 – B. R. Ambedkar, a founding father of modern India and architect of its constitution (d. 1956)

April 15

Väinö Raitio, Finnish composer (d. 1945)

Wallace Reid, American actor (d. 1923)[24]

April 17 – George Adamski, Polish-born alleged UFO traveler (d. 1965)

April 20 – Aldo Finzi, Italian politician (d. 1944)

April 23 – Sergei Prokofiev, Soviet composer (d. 1953)

April 29 – Bharathidasan, Tamil poet and rationalist (d. 1964)[25]

May 7 – Harry McShane, Scottish socialist (d. 1988)

May 10

Anton Dostler, German general (d. 1945)

Mahmoud Mokhtar, Egyptian sculptor (d. 1934)

May 15

Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer (d. 1940)[26]

Hjalmar Dahl, Finnish journalist, translator and writer (d. 1960)[27]

Fritz Feigl, Austrian-born chemist (d. 1971)

Nipo T. Strongheart, Native American filmmaker (d. 1966)[28]

May 16

Richard Tauber, Austrian tenor (d. 1948)

Adolf Ritter von Tutschek, German fighter ace (d. 1918)

May 18 – Rudolf Carnap, German philosopher (d. 1970)

May 19 – Oswald Boelcke, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1916)

May 22 – Eddie Edwards, American jazz trombonist (d. 1963)

May 23 – Pär Lagerkvist, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)

May 24 – William F. Albright, American archeologist, Biblical scholar (d. 1971)

May 26

Paul Lukas, Hungarian-born American actor (d. 1971)

Mamie Smith, American vaudeville singer (d. 1943)

June 2 – Takijirō Ōnishi, Japanese admiral (d. 1945)

June 3 – Jim Tully, American vagabond, pugilist and writer (d. 1947)

June 4 – Leopold Vietoris, Austrian mathematician (d. 2002)

June 9 – Cole Porter, American composer, songwriter (d. 1964)

June 18 – Ahmad bin Yahya, King of Yemen (d. 1962)

June 20 – John A. Costello, second President of Ireland (d. 1976)

June 21 – Hermann Scherchen, German conductor (d. 1966)

June 23

Ion Codreanu, Romanian general (d. 1960)

Valērija Seile, Latvian politician (d. 1970)

June 27 – Mina Wylie, Australian swimmer (d. 1984)

June 28

Esther Forbes, American writer (d. 1967)

Carl Andrew Spaatz, American general (d. 1974)

June 30 – Man Mountain Dean, American professional wrestler (d. 1953)

July–September

Karl Kobelt

Ethel Roosevelt Derby

Madame Minna Craucher

Karl Dönitz

William McKell

July 2 – Karin Kock-Lindberg, Swedish politician (d. 1976)

July 5 – John Howard Northrop, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)

July 7 – Tadamichi Kuribayashi, Imperial Japanese Army general (d. 1945)

July 10 – Edith Quimby, American medical researcher, physicist (d. 1982)

July 11 – Joseph Sadi-Lecointe, French aviator (d. 1944)

July 12 – Jetta Goudal, Dutch-American actress (d. 1985)

July 18

Billy Sullivan, American actor (d. 1946)

Gene Lockhart, Canadian-American actor, singer, and playwright (d. 1957)

July 21 – Elmer Ripley, American basketball coach (d. 1982)

July 26 – William J. Connors, American politician (d. 1961)

July 27 – Jacob van der Hoeden, Dutch-Israeli veterinary scientist (d. 1968)

July 28 – Joe E. Brown, American actor, comedian (d. 1973)

July 29 – Bernhard Zondek German-born Israeli gynecologist, developer of first reliable pregnancy test (d. 1966)

July 30 – Roderic Dallas, Australian World War I fighter ace (d. 1918)

August 1

Karl Kobelt, 2-time President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1968)

Charles Ritz, French hotelier, fly fisherman (d. 1976)

August 2 – Viktor Maksimovich Zhirmunsky, Russian literary historian, linguist (d. 1971)

August 11 – Stancho Belkovski, Bulgarian architect, lecturer (d. 1962)

August 13 – Ethel Roosevelt Derby, youngest daughter of Theodore Roosevelt (d. 1977)

August 14 – Ralph Barton, American artist (d. 1931)

August 15

Marin Ceaușu, Romanian general (d. 1954)

Chief Yowlachie, Native American actor (d. 1966)

August 17 – Dulcie Mary Pillers, English medical illustrator (d. 1961)

August 21 – Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican supercentenarian, oldest war veteran ever and last surviving person born in 1891 (d. 2007)

August 23 – Minna Craucher, Finnish socialite and spy (d. 1932)[29][30]

August 29 – Michael Chekhov, Russian-American actor, theatre director (d. 1955)

September 3 – Bessie Delany, African-American physician, author (d. 1995)

September 5 – Edward Molyneux, English fashion designer (d. 1974)

September 12 – Pedro Albizu Campos, advocate of Puerto Rican independence (d. 1965)

September 14 – William F. Friedman, American cryptographer (d. 1969)

September 16

Teruo Akiyama, Japanese admiral (d. 1943)

Karl Dönitz, German admiral, briefly President of Germany (d. 1980)

Stephanie von Hohenlohe, Austrian-born German World War II spy (d. 1972)

Julie Winnefred Bertrand, Canadian supercentenarian (d. 2007)

September 18 – Rafael Pérez y Pérez, Spanish writer (d. 1984)

September 22 – Hans Albers, German actor, singer (d. 1960)

September 22 – Alma Thomas, African American painter (d. 1978)

September 25 – Godfrey Ince, British civil servant (d. 1960)

September 26

Charles Munch, French conductor, violinist (d. 1968)

William McKell, 12th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1985)

September 28 – Myrtle Gonzalez, American film, stage actress (d. 1918)

October–December

James Chadwick

Frederick Banting

Mariano Ospina Pérez

Julius Raab

Nelly Sachs

Hu Shih

October 12 – Fumimaro Konoe, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1945)

October 13 – Irene Rich, American actress (d. 1988)

October 15 – Tadashige Daigo, Japanese admiral (d. 1947)

October 17 – Yasuyo Yamasaki, Imperial Japanese Army officer (d. 1943)

October 18 – Joe Abbott OBE, MC, Australian politician (d. 1965)

October 20 – James Chadwick, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)

October 24 – Rafael Trujillo, dictator of the Dominican Republic (d. 1961)

October 25

Petre Antonescu, Romanian general (d. 1957)

Charles Coughlin, American Catholic priest, anti-Semitic radio host (d. 1979)

October 28

Ormer Locklear, American stunt pilot, film actor (d. 1920)

Maria José de Castro Rebello Mendes, Brazilian diplomat

November 2 – David Townsend, American art director (d. 1935)

November 4 – Orlando Ward, American general (d. 1972)

November 7

Miriam Cooper, American silent film actress (d. 1976)

Genrikh Yagoda, Soviet police and intelligence official (d. 1938)

November 10 – Carl Stalling, American musician (d. 1972)

November 12 – Władysław Bortnowski, Polish historian and general (d. 1966)

November 14 – Frederick Banting, Canadian physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1941)

November 15

Vincent Astor, American philanthropist (d. 1959)

Erwin Rommel, German field marshal (d. 1944)

November 24 – Mariano Ospina Pérez, Colombian politician, 17th President of Colombia (d. 1976)

November 28 – Gregorio Perfecto, Filipino jurist, politician (d. 1949)

November 29 – Julius Raab, former Chancellor of Austria (d. 1964)

December 4 – T. V. Soong, Taiwanese businessman, politician (d. 1971)

December 6

Masatomi Kimura, Japanese admiral (d. 1960)

Gotthard Sachsenberg, German World War I naval aviator, fighter ace (d. 1961)

December 9 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet (d. 1917)[31]

December 10

Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, British field marshal (d. 1969)

Nelly Sachs, German writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)[32]

December 14

Katherine MacDonald, American silent screen actress (d. 1956)

Lester Melrose, American record producer, known primarily for promoting the Chicago blues genre (d. 1968)

December 17

Karl Emil Schäfer, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1917)

Hu Shih, Chinese liberal (d. 1962)

December 19 – Edward Bernard Raczynski, former President of Poland (d. 1993)

December 24 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator (d. 1970)

December 25

Kenneth Anderson, British general (d. 1959)

Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980)

December 26 – Henry Miller, American novelist (d. 1980)[33]

December 29 – Béla Imrédy, 32nd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1946)

Deaths

January–June

Carl Johan Thyselius

Nicolaus Otto

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky

John A. Macdonald

Wilhelm Eduard Weber

January 4 – Charles Keene, English artist and illustrator (b. 1823)

January 5 – Emma Abbott, American opera singer (b. 1849)

January 11 – Carl Johan Thyselius, Swedish politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1811)

January 15 – John Wellborn Root, American architect (b. 1850)

January 16 – Léo Delibes, French composer (b. 1836)

January 20 – Kalākaua, last reigning King of Hawaii (b. 1836)

January 21

Calixa Lavallée, Canadian composer (b. 1842)

James Timberlake, American lawman (b. 1846)

January 25 - Theo van Gogh, Dutch art dealer (b. 1857)

January 26 – Nicolaus Otto, German engineer (b. 1832)

February 4 – Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos, Roman Catholic archbishop and Mexican politician who served as regent during the Second Mexican Empire, 1863-1864 (d. 1816)[34]

February 10 – Sofia Kovalevskaya, Russian mathematician (b. 1850)

February 13 – David Dixon Porter, American admiral (b. 1813)

February 14 – William Tecumseh Sherman, American general (b. 1820)

March 13 – Théodore de Banville, French writer (b. 1823)[35]

March 15 – Sir Joseph Bazalgette, English civil engineer (b. 1819)[36]

March 17 – Eduard Clam-Gallas, Austrian general (b. 1805)

March 27 – James A. Ekin, Union Army general (b. 1819)

March 29 – Georges Seurat, French painter (b. 1859)

April 2 – Ahmed Vefik Pasha, Turkish statesman (b. 1823)

April 7 – P. T. Barnum, American showman (b. 1810)

April 9 – George Cavendish-Bentinck, British Conservative politician (b. 1821)

April 24 – Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prussian field marshal (b. 1800)

April 25 – Nathaniel Woodard, English educationalist (b. 1811)

May 2 – Albany James Christie, British Jesuit priest and academic (b. 1817)

May 8

Helena Blavatsky, Russian-born author, theosophist (b. 1831)

Sir John Robertson, Australian politician, Premier of New South Wales (b. 1816)

May 16 – Ion C. Brătianu, 2-Time Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1821)

June 6 – John A. Macdonald, 1st Prime Minister of Canada, Father of Confederation (b. 1815)

June 19 – David Settle Reid, American politician (b. 1813)

June 23 – Samuel Newitt Wood, American politician (b. 1825)

June 24 – Wilhelm Eduard Weber, German physicist (b. 1804)

July–December

Herman Melville

Saint Ambrose of Optina

Prince Kuni Asahiko

Arthur Rimbaud

July 1 – Mihail Kogălniceanu, 3rd Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1817)

July 4 – Hannibal Hamlin, 15th Vice President of the United States (b. 1809)

July 20 – Sir Frederick Weld, 6th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1823)

July 24 – Hermann Raster, German-born Forty-Eighter, editor-in-chief of the Illinois Staats-Zeitung (b. 1827)

August 12 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and essayist (b. 1819)[37]

August 14 – Sarah Childress Polk, First Lady of the United States (b. 1803)

August 27 – Samuel C. Pomeroy, American politician, railroad executive (b. 1816)

August 29 – Pierre Lallement, French inventor of the bicycle (b. 1843?)

September 4 – José María Urvina, 5th President of Ecuador (b. 1808)

September 7 – Lorenzo Sawyer, 9th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of California (b. 1820)

September 11 – Antero de Quental, Portuguese poet (b. 1842)

September 15 – Ivan Goncharov, Russian author (b. 1812)[38]

September 19 – José Manuel Balmaceda, 10th President of Chile (b. 1840)

September 28 – Herman Melville, American novelist (b. 1819)[39]

September 30 – Georges Ernest Boulanger, French general, politician (b. 1837)

October 6

Charles I of Württemberg (b. 1823)

Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish nationalist leader (b. 1846)

October 23 – Ambrose of Optina, Russian Orthodox saint (b. 1812)

October 25 – Prince Kuni Asahiko of Japan (b. 1824)

October 29 – Prince Yamashina Akira of Japan (b. 1816)

November 6 – J. Gregory Smith, Vermont governor (b. 1818)

November 10 – Arthur Rimbaud, French poet (b. 1854)[40]

November 17 – George H. Cooper, United States Navy admiral (b. 1821)

November 28 – Sir James Corry, 1st Baronet, British politician (b. 1826)

December 4 – Frederick Whitaker, English-New Zealand lawyer, politician and 5th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1812)

December 5 – Pedro II, 2nd and last Emperor of Brazil (b. 1825)

December 6 – Émile Bayard, French artist (b. 1837)

December 7 – Mary Crane, American activist; mother of the writer, Stephen Crane (b. 1827)

December 12 – Julia A. Ames, American reformer (b. 1861)

December 17 – José María Iglesias, Mexican lawyer and journalist, interim president from 1876 to 1877 (b. 1823)[41]

December 20 – William Robert Woodman, British co-founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (b. 1828)

December 29 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-born German mathematician, academic (b. 1823)

December 31 – Samuel Ajayi Crowther, 1st African Anglican bishop, linguist and legendary missionary (b. 1809)

Date unknown

Anna Sprengel, German countess (alleged death)

References

 Naval Institute Proceedings. U.S. Naval Institute. 1962. p. 60.

 Revista Interamericana: Interamericana Review. Inter American University Press. 1983. p. 130.

 Woodward, Antony; Penn, Robert (2007). The Wrong Kind of Snow. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-93787-7.

 Carter, Clive (1971). The Blizzard of '91. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-5137-0.

 562 passengers and crew from Utopia and two rescue sailors from HMS Immortalité - "The Dead of the Utopia" (PDF). The New York Times. March 20, 1891. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.

 Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN 0-14-102715-0.

 Iwanczuk, Jorge (1992). Historia del Fútbol Amateur en la Argentina. Autores Editores. ISBN 9504343848.

 "Blanco Encalada, fragata blindada (1º)" (in Spanish). Armada de Chile. Archived from the original on 3 December 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2009.

 Stem, Robert (2008). Destroyer Battles: Epics of Naval Close Combat. Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1473813564.

 Stagebill. B & B Enterprises, Incorporated. 1985. p. 17.

 Pope Leo XIII (2002) [1891]. Rerum Novarum: Encyclical on the Rights and Duties of Capital and Labour. Catholic Truth Society. ISBN 978-1-86082-153-0.

 Vesistörakentamisen historiaa - Suomen Kalakirjasto (in Finnish)

 Vesiputoukset ja vesivoima Suomessa - Suomen Vesiputoukset (in Finnish)

 Carroll, Sean B. (2009). Remarkable Creatures: Epic Adventures in the Search for the Origin of Species. London: Quercus. pp. 90–91. ISBN 978-1-84916-072-8.

 Iisalmi: Historia (in Finnish)

 Lloyd, John; Mitchinson, John (2010). The Second Book of General Ignorance. London: Faber. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-571-26965-5.

 Heerding, A. (1986). The Origin of the Dutch Incandescent Lamp Industry. The history of N.V. Philips Gloeilampenfabriek, vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32169-7.

 Ellenberger, Allan (2001). Celebrities in Los Angeles cemeteries : a directory. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland. p. 225. ISBN 9780786409839.

 Bloom, Harold (2003). Zora Neale Hurston. Philadelphia: Chelsea House. p. 129. ISBN 9781438115535.

 1891 at the Encyclopædia Britannica

 Br. Dominic, M.I.C.M., Tert. (October 7, 2004). "Saint Miguel Pro, A Modern Martyr". Catholicism.org. Retrieved November 29, 2021.

 Bellamy, Richard (1993). Gramsci and the Italian state. Manchester, UK New York: Manchester University Press Distributed by St. Martin's Press. p. xiv. ISBN 9780719033421.

 Magill, Frank (1999). Dictionary of world biography. London: Routledge. p. 4045. ISBN 9781579580483.

 Fleming, E.J. (February 8, 2007). Wallace Reid: The Life And Death of a Hollywood Idol. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0786428151.

 Pāppaṇṇā Paramēsvaran̲ (1991). Bharathidasan: Life. Anu Pathippagam. p. 9.

 Nadine Natov (1985). Mikhail Bulgakov. Twayne Publishers. p. 1-2. ISBN 978-0-8057-6598-4.

 Hjalmar Dahl – Svenskt översättarlexikon (in Swedish)

 "Strongheart's Lineage" (PDF). Sin-Wit-Ki. Yakima, Washington: Yakama Nation Fish and Wildlife Resource Management Program. 11 (3): 12. Fall–Winter 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 21, 2014. Retrieved August 24, 2014.

 Venla Sainio: Craucher, Minna (1891-1932) - Kansallisbiografia (in Finnish)

 "Minna Craucher". Time Magazine. March 21, 1932. Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2008.

 Гістарычны шлях беларускай нацыі і дзяржавы (in Russian). Vydavets Zmitser Kolas. 2005. p. 409. ISBN 978-985-6783-06-0.

 S. Lillian Kremer (2003). Holocaust Literature: Lerner to Zychlinsky, index. Taylor & Francis. p. 1067. ISBN 978-0-415-92984-4.

 Lawrence Durrell; Henry Miller (September 1998). Durrell-Miller Letters, 1935-1980. New Directions Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8112-1730-9.

 "Excmo. Sr. Don Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos (1855-1863)" (in Spanish). Arquidiocesis de Puebla. Retrieved May 29, 2019.

 Merriam-Webster, Inc; MERRIAM-WEBSTER STAFF; Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishers, Inc. Staff (1995). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Merriam-Webster. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-87779-042-6.

 "BBC - History - Joseph Bazalgette". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved March 18, 2022.

 "The Last Tribute Paid. James Russell Lowell Laid At Rest. Buried Under Hornbeam Trees In The Spot He Had Himself Selected And Near The Grave Of Longfellow At Mount Auburn". The New York Times. August 15, 1891. Retrieved March 23, 2010.

 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Goncharov, Ivan Alexandrovich" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

 Hershel Parker (1996). Herman Melville: A Biography. JHU Press. p. 920. ISBN 978-0-8018-8186-2.

 Enid Starkie (1954). Arthur Rimbaud, 1854-1954. Clarendon Press. p. 9.

 "JOSÉ MARÍA IGLESIAS" (in Spanish). Presidencia de la Republica de Mexico. Archived from the original on May 30, 2019. Retrieved May 30, 2019.

Sources

Appletons' Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1891: Embracing Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry (1892); highly detailed compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage. not online.

  • Condition: In Good Condition given its age over 130 years old
  • Denomination: Threepence
  • Year of Issue: 1891
  • Era: Victoria (1837-1901)
  • Fineness: 0.925
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain

PicClick Insights - SOLID SILVER COIN Three pence 1891 Victorian Antique Great Britain Royal Mint UK PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 4 watchers, 1.0 new watchers per day, 4 days for sale on eBay. Very high amount watching. 0 sold, 1 available. High amount of bids.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 3,236+ items sold. 0.3% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive