US Civil War Gold Coin Abraham Lincoln Americana 1861 1865 Abolition of Slavery

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Seller: checkoutmyunqiuefunitems ✉️ (3,666) 99.9%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 276343383799 US Civil War Gold Coin Abraham Lincoln Americana 1861 1865 Abolition of Slavery. Joseph 2016, p. 590. 1% Judaism. United States. See caption. Religious affiliation in the United States is among the most diverse in the world[389] and varies significantly by region[390] and age. Other religious. American Civil War 1861 - 1865 This is an Uncirculated Gold Plated Coin to Commemoration The American Civil War The main side has Images of the two Generals Commanders Ulysses S. Grant & Robert E. Lee In the background are the two flags the US Stars and Stripes of the North and the Flag of the South There is also an image of the Great Abraham Lincoln with his famous quote around the outside "The Second Bourgeois Revolution in America History" Abraham Lincoln The other side crossed army rifles guns with the caps of the north and the south and their flags it has the words "Abolition of Slavery" & "1861 - 1865 American Civil War" Comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder A Beautiful coin and Magnificent Keepsake Souvenir In Excellent Condition Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life I always combined postage on multiple items and I have a lot of Similar items to this on Ebay so why check out my other items Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 3000 Satisfied Customers I always combine items and discount postage on multiple I Specialise in Unique Fun Items So For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! Be sure to add me to your favourite sellers list All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment and feedback let immedialtley as soon as payment received

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The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between northern and southern states over slavery, states’ rights and westward expansion. The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 caused seven southern states to secede and form the Confederate States of America; four more states soon joined them. The War Between the States, as the Civil War was also known, ended in Confederate surrender in 1865. The conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in ruin. Causes of the Civil War In the mid-19th century, while the United States was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country’s northern and southern regions. In the North, manufacturing and industry was well established, and agriculture was mostly limited to small-scale farms, while the South’s economy was based on a system of large-scale farming that depended on the labor of Black enslaved people to grow certain crops, especially cotton and tobacco. American Civil War History Play Video Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery’s extension into the new western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America—and thus the backbone of their economy—was in danger. Did you know? Confederate General Thomas Jonathan Jackson earned his famous nickname, "Stonewall," from his steadfast defensive efforts in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). At Chancellorsville, Jackson was shot by one of his own men, who mistook him for Union cavalry. His arm was amputated, and he died from pneumonia eight days later. In 1854, the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which essentially opened all new territories to slavery by asserting the rule of popular sovereignty over congressional edict. Pro- and anti-slavery forces struggled violently in “Bleeding Kansas,” while opposition to the act in the North led to the formation of the Republican Party, a new political entity based on the principle of opposing slavery’s extension into the western territories. After the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Dred Scott case (1857) confirmed the legality of slavery in the territories, the abolitionist John Brown’s raid at Harper’s Ferry in 1859 convinced more and more southerners that their northern neighbors were bent on the destruction of the “peculiar institution” that sustained them. Abraham Lincoln’s election in November 1860 was the final straw, and within three months seven southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas—had seceded from the United States. Outbreak of the Civil War (1861) Even as Lincoln took office in March 1861, Confederate forces threatened the federal-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. On April 12, after Lincoln ordered a fleet to resupply Sumter, Confederate artillery fired the first shots of the Civil War. Sumter’s commander, Major Robert Anderson, surrendered after less than two days of bombardment, leaving the fort in the hands of Confederate forces under Pierre G.T. Beauregard. Four more southern states—Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee—joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter. Border slave states like Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland did not secede, but there was much Confederate sympathy among their citizens. Though on the surface the Civil War may have seemed a lopsided conflict, with the 23 states of the Union enjoying an enormous advantage in population, manufacturing (including arms production) and railroad construction, the Confederates had a strong military tradition, along with some of the best soldiers and commanders in the nation. They also had a cause they believed in: preserving their long-held traditions and institutions, chief among these being slavery. In the First Battle of Bull Run (known in the South as First Manassas) on July 21, 1861, 35,000 Confederate soldiers under the command of Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson forced a greater number of Union forces (or Federals) to retreat towards Washington, D.C., dashing any hopes of a quick Union victory and leading Lincoln to call for 500,000 more recruits. In fact, both sides’ initial call for troops had to be widened after it became clear that the war would not be a limited or short conflict. The Civil War in Virginia (1862) George B. McClellan—who replaced the aging General Winfield Scott as supreme commander of the Union Army after the first months of the war—was beloved by his troops, but his reluctance to advance frustrated Lincoln. In the spring of 1862, McClellan finally led his Army of the Potomac up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, capturing Yorktown on May 4. The combined forces of Robert E. Lee and Jackson successfully drove back McClellan’s army in the Seven Days’ Battles (June 25-July 1), and a cautious McClellan called for yet more reinforcements in order to move against Richmond. Lincoln refused, and instead withdrew the Army of the Potomac to Washington. By mid-1862, McClellan had been replaced as Union general-in-chief by Henry W. Halleck, though he remained in command of the Army of the Potomac. Play Video Robert E. Lee Lee then moved his troops northwards and split his men, sending Jackson to meet Pope’s forces near Manassas, while Lee himself moved separately with the second half of the army. On August 29, Union troops led by John Pope struck Jackson’s forces in the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas). The next day, Lee hit the Federal left flank with a massive assault, driving Pope’s men back towards Washington. On the heels of his victory at Manassas, Lee began the first Confederate invasion of the North. Despite contradictory orders from Lincoln and Halleck, McClellan was able to reorganize his army and strike at Lee on September 14 in Maryland, driving the Confederates back to a defensive position along Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg. On September 17, the Army of the Potomac hit Lee’s forces (reinforced by Jackson’s) in what became the war’s bloodiest single day of fighting. Total casualties at the Battle of Antietam (also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg) numbered 12,410 of some 69,000 troops on the Union side, and 13,724 of around 52,000 for the Confederates. The Union victory at Antietam would prove decisive, as it halted the Confederate advance in Maryland and forced Lee to retreat into Virginia. Still, McClellan’s failure to pursue his advantage earned him the scorn of Lincoln and Halleck, who removed him from command in favor of Ambrose E. Burnside. Burnside’s assault on Lee’s troops near Fredericksburg on December 13 ended in heavy Union casualties and a Confederate victory; he was promptly replaced by Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker, and both armies settled into winter quarters across the Rappahannock River from each other. After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863-4) Lincoln had used the occasion of the Union victory at Antietam to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which freed all enslaved people in the rebellious states after January 1, 1863. He justified his decision as a wartime measure, and did not go so far as to free the enslaved people in the border states loyal to the Union. Still, the Emancipation Proclamation deprived the Confederacy of the bulk of its labor forces and put international public opinion strongly on the Union side. Some 186,000 Black Civil War soldiers would join the Union Army by the time the war ended in 1865, and 38,000 lost their lives. In the spring of 1863, Hooker’s plans for a Union offensive were thwarted by a surprise attack by the bulk of Lee’s forces on May 1, whereupon Hooker pulled his men back to Chancellorsville. The Confederates gained a costly victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville, suffering 13,000 casualties (around 22 percent of their troops); the Union lost 17,000 men (15 percent). Lee launched another invasion of the North in June, attacking Union forces commanded by General George Meade on July 1 near Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania. Over three days of fierce fighting, the Confederates were unable to push through the Union center, and suffered casualties of close to 60 percent. Play Video Harriet Tubman: Soldier/Spy Meade failed to counterattack, however, and Lee’s remaining forces were able to escape into Virginia, ending the last Confederate invasion of the North. Also in July 1863, Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant took Vicksburg (Mississippi) in the Siege of Vicksburg, a victory that would prove to be the turning point of the war in the western theater. After a Confederate victory at Chickamauga Creek, Georgia, just south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in September, Lincoln expanded Grant’s command, and he led a reinforced Federal army (including two corps from the Army of the Potomac) to victory in the Battle of Chattanooga in late November. Toward a Union Victory (1864-65) In March 1864, Lincoln put Grant in supreme command of the Union armies, replacing Halleck. Leaving William Tecumseh Sherman in control in the West, Grant headed to Washington, where he led the Army of the Potomac towards Lee’s troops in northern Virginia. Despite heavy Union casualties in the Battle of the Wilderness and at Spotsylvania (both May 1864), at Cold Harbor (early June) and the key rail center of Petersburg (June), Grant pursued a strategy of attrition, putting Petersburg under siege for the next nine months. Sherman outmaneuvered Confederate forces to take Atlanta by September, after which he and some 60,000 Union troops began the famous “March to the Sea,” devastating Georgia on the way to capturing Savannah on December 21. Columbia and Charleston, South Carolina, fell to Sherman’s men by mid-February, and Jefferson Davis belatedly handed over the supreme command to Lee, with the Confederate war effort on its last legs. Sherman pressed on through North Carolina, capturing Fayetteville, Bentonville, Goldsboro and Raleigh by mid-April. Meanwhile, exhausted by the Union siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Lee’s forces made a last attempt at resistance, attacking and captured the Federal-controlled Fort Stedman on March 25. An immediate counterattack reversed the victory, however, and on the night of April 2-3 Lee’s forces evacuated Richmond. For most of the next week, Grant and Meade pursued the Confederates along the Appomattox River, finally exhausting their possibilities for escape. Grant accepted Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9. On the eve of victory, the Union lost its great leader: The actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington on April 14. Sherman received Johnston’s surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina on April 26, effectively ending the Civil War. United States Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Coordinates: 40°N 100°W Extended-protected article From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see America (disambiguation), US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), The United States of America (disambiguation) and United States (disambiguation). United States of America   Flag   Coat of arms Motto: "In God We Trust"[1] Other traditional mottos:[2] Anthem: "The Star-Spangled Banner"[3] 1:18 Orthographic map of the U.S. in North America Show globe (states and D.C. only) Show the U.S. and its territories Show territories with EEZ Show all Capital    Washington, D.C. 38°53′N 77°1′W Largest city    New York City 40°43′N 74°0′W Official languages    None at the federal level[a] National language    English (de facto) Ethnic groups (2020)[4][5][6]     By race: 61.6% White 12.4% Black 6.0% Asian 1.1% Native American 0.2% Pacific Islander 10.2% two or more races 8.4% other By origin: 81.3% non-Hispanic or Latino 18.7% Hispanic or Latino Religion (2021)[7]     63% Christianity 40% Protestantism 21% Catholicism 2% other Christian 29% unaffiliated 1% Buddhism 1% Hinduism 1% Islam 1% Judaism 2% other 2% unanswered Demonym(s)    American[b][8] Government    Federal presidential constitutional republic • President Joe Biden • Vice President Kamala Harris • House Speaker Kevin McCarthy • Chief Justice John Roberts Legislature    Congress • Upper house Senate • Lower house House of Representatives Independence from Great Britain • Declaration July 4, 1776 • Confederation March 1, 1781 • Recognized September 3, 1783 • Constitution June 21, 1788 • Last Amendment May 5, 1992 Area • Total area 3,796,742 sq mi (9,833,520 km2)[9] (3rd[c]) • Water (%) 4.66[10] (2015) • Land area 3,531,905 sq mi (9,147,590 km2) (3rd) Population • 2022 estimate Neutral increase 333,287,557[11] • 2020 census 331,449,281[d][12][dead link] (3rd) • Density 87/sq mi (33.6/km2) (185th) GDP (PPP)    2023 estimate • Total Increase $26.855 trillion[13] (2nd) • Per capita Increase $80,035[13] (8th) GDP (nominal)    2023 estimate • Total Increase $26.855 trillion[13] (1st) • Per capita Increase $80,035[13] (7th) Gini (2020)    Negative increase 39.4[e][14] medium HDI (2021)    Increase 0.921[15] very high · 21st Currency    U.S. dollar ($) (USD) Time zone    UTC−4 to −12, +10, +11 • Summer (DST) UTC−4 to −10[f] Date format    mm/dd/yyyy[g] Driving side    right[h] Calling code    +1 ISO 3166 code    US Internet TLD    .us[16] The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or informally as America, is a country primarily located in North America and consisting of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territories, nine Minor Outlying Islands,[i] and 326 Indian reservations. It is the world's third-largest country by both land and total area.[c] It shares land borders with Canada to its north and with Mexico to its south and has maritime borders with the Bahamas, Cuba, Russia, and other nations.[j] With a population of over 333 million,[k] it is the most populous country in the Americas and the third-most populous in the world. The national capital of the United States is Washington, D.C., and its most populous city and principal financial center is New York City. Indigenous peoples have inhabited the Americas for thousands of years. Beginning in 1607, British colonization led to the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies in what is now the Eastern United States. Their quarrel with the British Crown over taxation and political representation led to the American Revolution and the ensuing Revolutionary War. The United States declared independence on July 4, 1776, becoming the first nation-state founded on Enlightenment principles of unalienable natural rights, consent of the governed, and liberal democracy. The country began expanding across North America, spanning the continent by 1848. Sectional division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America, which fought the remaining states of the Union during the American Civil War (1861–1865). With the Union's victory and preservation, slavery was abolished nationally. By 1900, the United States established itself as a great power, becoming the world's largest economy. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. entered World War II on the Allied side. The aftermath of the war left the United States and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War. During the Cold War, both countries engaged in a struggle for ideological dominance but avoided direct military conflict. They also competed in the Space Race, which culminated in the 1969 landing of Apollo 11, making the U.S. the only nation to land humans on the Moon. With the Soviet Union's collapse and the subsequent end of the Cold War in 1991, the United States emerged as the world's sole superpower. The United States government is a federal republic and a representative democracy with three separate branches of government. It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives, a lower house based on population; and the Senate, an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Many policy issues are decentralized at a state or local level, with widely differing laws by jurisdiction. The U.S. ranks highly in international measures of quality of life, income and wealth, economic competitiveness, human rights, innovation, and education; it has low levels of perceived corruption. It has higher levels of incarceration and inequality than most other developed nations, and is the only developed nation without universal healthcare. As a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, the U.S. has been shaped by the world's largest immigrant population. The United States is a highly developed country that has the highest median income of any polity in the world. Its economy accounts for approximately a quarter of global GDP and is the world's largest by GDP at market exchange rates. It is the world's largest importer and second-largest exporter, and possesses the largest amount of wealth of any country. The United States is a founding member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, World Health Organization, and is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. It wields considerable global influence as the world's foremost political, cultural, economic, military, and scientific power. Etymology Further information: Names of the United States and Demonyms for the United States The first documentary evidence of the phrase "United States of America" dates back to a letter from January 2, 1776, written by Stephen Moylan, a Continental Army aide to General George Washington, to Joseph Reed, Washington's aide-de-camp. Moylan expressed his desire to go "with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain" to seek assistance in the Revolutionary War effort.[26][27][28] The first known publication of the phrase "United States of America" was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, on April 6, 1776.[29] By June 1776, the name "United States of America" appeared in drafts of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, authored by John Dickinson, a Founding Father from the Province of Pennsylvania,[30][31] and in the Declaration of Independence, written primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, on July 4, 1776.[30] History Main article: History of the United States For a topical guide, see Outline of United States history. Beginnings (before 1630) Further information: Native Americans in the United States and Pre-Columbian era Cliff Palace, located in present-day Colorado, was built by Ancestral Puebloans. The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia, crossing the Bering land bridge and arriving in the present-day United States at least 12000 years ago; some evidence suggests an even earlier date of arrival.[32][33][34] The Clovis culture, which appeared around 11000BC, is believed to represent the first wave of human settlement in the Americas.[35][36] This was likely the first of three major waves of migration into North America; later waves brought the ancestors of present-day Athabaskans, Aleuts, and Eskimos.[37] Over time, indigenous cultures in North America grew increasingly sophisticated, and some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture in the southeast, developed advanced agriculture, architecture, and complex societies.[38] The city-state of Cahokia was the largest, most complex pre-Columbian archaeological site in present-day United States.[39] In the Four Corners region in present-day Southwestern United States, the culture of Ancestral Puebloans developed over centuries of agricultural experimentation.[40] The Algonquian, including peoples who speak Algonquian languages, were one of the most populous and widespread North American indigenous peoples.[41] These people were historically prominent along the Atlantic Coast and in the Saint Lawrence River and Great Lakes regions. Before European immigrants made contact with the Algonquian, most of the Algonquian survived by hunting and fishing, and many supplemented their diet by cultivating corn, beans, and squash, known as the "Three Sisters". The Ojibwe cultivated wild rice.[42] The Iroquois confederation Haudenosaunee, located in the southern Great Lakes region, was established between the 12th and 15th centuries.[43] Estimating the native population of North America following the arrival of European immigrants is difficult.[44][45] Douglas H. Ubelaker of the Smithsonian Institution estimated a population of 93000 in the South Atlantic states and a population of 473000 in the Gulf states,[46] but most academics regard this figure as too low.[44] Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns believed the populations were much higher, suggesting that approximately 1.1 million resided on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, 2.2 million people living between Florida and Massachusetts, 5.2 million in the Mississippi Valley and tributaries, and around 700000 in the Florida peninsula.[44][45] The Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, sent by France to the New World in 1525, encountered Native American inhabitants in the present-day New York Bay region.[47] The Spanish Empire set up their first settlements in Florida and New Mexico, including in Saint Augustine, which is often considered the nation's oldest city,[48] and Santa Fe. The French established their own settlements along the Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico, including in New Orleans and Mobile.[49] Colonization, settlement, and communities (1630–1763) Main article: Colonial history of the United States Further information: Thirteen Colonies, British America, European colonization of the Americas, and Slavery in the colonial history of the United States Map of the U.S. showing the original Thirteen Colonies along the [eastern seaboard The United Colonies in 1775: * Dark Red = New England colonies. * Bright Red = Middle Atlantic colonies. * Red-brown = Southern colonies British colonization of the east coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607, where Pilgrims settled in Jamestown and later established Plymouth Colony in 1620.[50][51] The continent's first elected legislative assembly, the House of Burgesses in Virginia, was founded in 1619. In 1636, Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded as the first institution of higher education. The Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.[52][53] Many English settlers were dissenting Christians who fled England seeking religious freedom. The native population of America declined after European arrival,[54][55][56] primarily as a result of infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles.[57][58] By the mid-1670s, the British defeated and seized the territory of Dutch settlers in New Netherland, in the mid-Atlantic region. In the 17th century, during European colonization, many European settlers experienced food shortages, disease, and conflicts with Native Americans, including in King Philip's War. In addition to fighting European settlers, Native Americans also often fought neighboring tribes. But in many cases, the natives and settlers came to develop a mutual dependency. Settlers traded for food and animal pelts, and Native Americans traded for guns, tools, and other European goods.[59] Native Americans taught many settlers to cultivate corn, beans, and other foodstuffs. European missionaries and others felt it was important to civilize the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural practices and lifestyles.[60][61] With the increased European colonization of North America, however, Native Americans were often displaced or killed during conflicts.[62] European settlers also began trafficking African slaves into the colonial United States via the transatlantic slave trade.[63] By the turn of the 18th century, slavery supplanted indentured servitude as the main source of agricultural labor for the cash crops in the American South.[64] Colonial society was divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery, and several colonies passed acts for or against it.[65][66] In what was then considered British America, the Thirteen Colonies[l] were administered as overseas dependencies by the British.[67] All colonies had local governments with elections open to white male property owners except Jews and, in some areas, Catholics.[68][69] With very high birth rates, low death rates, and steadily growing settlements, the colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations.[70] The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s, known as the Great Awakening, fueled colonial interest in both religion and religious liberty.[71] Excluding the Native Americans population, the Thirteen Colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770, representing a population that was then roughly a third the size of Britain. By the 1770s, despite continuing new immigrant arrivals from Britain and other European regions, the natural increase of the population was such that only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas.[72] The colonies' distance from Britain had allowed for the development of self-governance in the colonies, but it encountered periodic efforts by British monarchs to reassert royal authority.[73] Revolution and the new nation (1763–1849) Main articles: History of the United States (1776–1789) and 1789–1849 Further information: United Colonies, American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, and Confederation period See caption Declaration of Independence, a portrait by John Trumbull depicting the Committee of Five presenting the draft of the Declaration to the Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, in Philadelphia A map of the territorial acquisitions of the United States between 1783 and 1917 After the British victory in the French and Indian War that was won largely through the support in men and materiel from the colonies, the British began to assert greater control in local colonial affairs, fomenting colonial political resistance. In 1774, to demonstrate colonial dissatisfaction with the lack of representation in the British government that extracted taxes from them, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and passed the Continental Association, which mandated a colonies-wide boycott of British goods. The American Revolutionary War began the following year, on April 19, 1775, at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The colonies responded by again convening in Philadelphia in the Second Continental Congress, where, in June 1775, they appointed George Washington as commander of the Continental Army, which was initially comprised of various American patriot militias resisting the British Army. In June 1776, the Second Continental Congress charged a committee of five of its delegates−John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman−with writing a draft of the Declaration of Independence. The five delegates, in turn, asked Jefferson to author its first draft. While Jefferson consulted with the other four delegates. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted and issued the Declaration of Independence, which famously stated: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." The unanimous adoption of the Declaration of Independence is celebrated annually on July 4 in the United States as Independence Day.[74] In 1777, the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga resulted in the capture of a British army, and led to France and their ally Spain joining in the war against them. After the surrender of a second British Army at the siege of Yorktown in 1781, Britain signed a peace treaty. American sovereignty gained international recognition, and the new nation took possession of substantial territory east of the Mississippi River, from what is present-day Canada in the north and Florida in the south.[75] Tensions with Britain remained, leading to the War of 1812, which was fought to a draw.[76] In 1781, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union established a decentralized government that operated until 1789.[74] As it became increasingly apparent that the Confederation was insufficient to govern the new country, nationalists advocated for and led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, where the United States Constitution was authored and ratified in state conventions in 1788. The U.S. Constitution is the oldest and longest-standing written and codified national constitution in force today.[77] Going into force in 1789, it reorganized the government into a federation administered by three branches (executive, judicial, and legislative), on the principle of creating salutary checks and balances. George Washington, who led the Continental Army to victory in the Revolutionary War and then willingly relinquished power, was elected the new nation's first President under the new constitution. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.[78] During the British Colonial era, slavery was legal in the American colonies, a longstanding institution in world history, and "challenges to its moral legitimacy were rare". However, during the Revolution, many in the colonies began to question the practice.[79] Regional divisions over slavery grew in the ensuing decades. In the North, several prominent Founding Fathers such as John Adams, Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and Benjamin Franklin advocated for the abolition of slavery, and by the 1810s every state in the region had, with these emancipations being the first in the Atlantic World.[80] The Missouri Compromise (1820) admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state and declared a policy of prohibiting slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 36°30′ parallel. The outcome de facto sectionalized the country into two factions: free states, which forbade slavery; and slave states, which protected the institution; it was controversial, widely seen as dividing the country along sectarian lines.[81] In the South, the invention of the cotton gin spurred entrenchment of slavery, with regional elites and intellectuals increasingly viewing the institution as a positive good instead of a necessary evil.[82] Although the federal government outlawed American participation in the Atlantic slave trade in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it, the use of slave labor.[83][84][85] The Second Great Awakening, especially in the period 1800–1840, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism;[86] in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.[87] Expansion, Civil War and Reconstruction (1849–1876) Main articles: History of the United States (1849–1865) and 1865–1918 Further information: Second Industrial Revolution, Territorial evolution of the United States, Slavery in the United States, Slave states and free states, American Civil War, Lost Cause of the Confederacy, and Reconstruction era The Old Plantation, a c. 1790 portrait of slaves on a South Carolina plantation Division of the states in the American Civil War (1861–1865):   Union states   Border states   Confederate states   Territories In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand further westward, some of them with a sense of manifest destiny.[88][89] The 1803 Louisiana Purchase almost doubled the nation's area,[90] Spain ceded Florida and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819,[91] the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845 during a period of expansionism,[89] and the 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest.[92] As it expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans, the federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation.[93][94] The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that forcibly resettled Indians. The displacement prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi River[95] and eventually conflict with Mexico.[96] Most of these conflicts ended with the cession of Native American territory and their confinement to Indian reservations. Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest, with the U.S. now spanning the continent.[88][97] The California Gold Rush of 1848–1849 spurred migration to the Pacific coast, which led to the California genocide[98] and the creation of additional western states.[99] Irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the enslavement of those of black African descent[100] was the primary cause of the American Civil War.[101] With the 1860 election of Republican Abraham Lincoln, conventions in eleven slave states, all in the Southern United States, declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America, while the federal government, known as the Union, maintained that secession was unconstitutional and illegitimate.[102] On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy initiated military conflict by bombarding Fort Sumter, a federal garrison in Charleston harbor in South Carolina. The American Civil War, the deadliest military conflict in American history, ensued and was fought between 1861 and 1865. The war resulted in the deaths of approximately 620000 soldiers from both sides and upwards of 50000 civilians, most of them in the South.[103] In early July 1863, the Civil War began to turn in the Union's favor, following the Union Army under General Ulysses S. Grant's successful capture of Vicksburg in the west split the Confederacy in two, denying it any further movement along or across the Mississippi River and preventing supplies from Texas and Arkansas that might sustain the war effort from passing east, almost simultaneous with victory in the Battle of Gettysburg, where Union Army general George Meade halted Confederate Army general Robert E. Lee's invasion of the North. In April 1865, following the Union Army's victory at the Battle of Appomattox Court House, the Confederacy surrendered and soon collapsed. Reconstruction began in earnest following the defeat of the Confederates. While President Lincoln attempted to foster reconciliation between the Union and former Confederacy, his assassination on April 14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again. Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to ensure the rights of African Americans, and the so-called Reconstruction Amendments to the Constitution guaranteed the abolishment of slavery, full citizenship to Americans of African descent, and suffrage for adult Black males. They persisted until the Compromise of 1877. Influential Southern Whites, calling themselves "Redeemers", took local control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the nadir of American race relations. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called Jim Crow laws, disenfranchising almost all Blacks and some impoverished Whites throughout the region. Blacks faced racial segregation nationwide, especially in the South,[104] and lived under the threat of lynching and other vigilante violence.[105] Development of the modern United States (1876–1914) Main article: History of the United States (1865–1918) Further information: Gilded Age, Progressive Era, Immigration to the United States, and Technological and industrial history of the United States National infrastructure, including telegraph and transcontinental railroads, spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. After the end of the American Civil War in 1865, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans.[106] Mainland expansion also included the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867.[107] In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii, which the U.S. annexed in 1898. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, by the Treaty of Paris (1898) following the Spanish–American War.[108] Puerto Ricans did not gain citizenship either through the Foraker Act (1900) or the Insular Cases (1901), but only one month prior to American entry into World War I though the Jones–Shafroth Act in 1917.[109]: 60–63  American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War.[110] The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917.[111] 2:43 An Edison Studios film showing immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in New York Harbor, a major point of entry for European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries[112][113] From 1865 through 1918 an unprecedented and diverse stream of immigrants arrived in the United States, 27.5 million in total. In all, 24.4 million (89%) came from Europe, including 2.9 million from Great Britain, 2.2 million from Ireland, 2.1 million from Scandinavia, 3.8 million from Germany, 4.1 million from Italy, 7.8 million from Russia and other parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Another 1.7 million came from Canada.[114] Most came through the port of New York City, and from 1892, through the immigration station on Ellis Island, but various ethnic groups settled in different locations. New York and other large cities of the East Coast became home to large Jewish, Irish, and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to the Midwest, obtaining jobs in industry and mining. At the same time, about one million French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England.[115] Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists. Tycoons like Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie led the nation's progress in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with J. P. Morgan playing a notable role. The United States also emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry in the early 20th century.[116] These changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality, immigration, and social unrest, which prompted the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements.[117][118][119] This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which was characterized by significant reforms, including health and safety regulation of consumer goods, the rise of labor unions, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition among businesses, and improvements in worker conditions. The Great Migration, which began around 1910, resulted in millions of African Americans leaving the rural South for urban areas in the North.[120] World Wars period (1914–1945) Main article: History of the United States (1918–1945) Further information: United States in World War I, Roaring Twenties, Great Depression in the United States, New Deal, and United States during World War II Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, an iconic February 1945 photo of U.S. Marines raising the U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II The Trinity nuclear test in the Jornada del Muerto desert on July 16, 1945, part of the Manhattan Project and the first detonation of a nuclear weapon The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an "associated power" alongside the Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the U.S. Senate refused to support this and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles under which the League of Nations was established.[121] In 1920, a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women's suffrage.[122] During the 1920s and 1930s, radio for mass communication and ultimately the invention of early television transformed communications in the United States.[123] The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, between 1933 and 1939, introduced his New Deal economic policies, which included public works projects, financial reforms, and regulations.[124] The Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.[125] At first neutral during World War II, the United States began supplying war materiel to the Allies in March 1941. A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $719 billion in 2021) worth of supplies was shipped in 1941–1945, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.[126] On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to militarily join the Allies against the Axis powers, and in the following year, to intern about 120000 Japanese and Japanese Americans.[127][128] The U.S. pursued a "Europe first" defense policy,[129] with the Philippines being invaded and occupied by Japan until the country's liberation by the U.S.-led forces in 1944–1945. During the war, the United States was one of the "Four Policemen"[130] who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.[131][132] The United States emerged relatively unscathed from the war, and with even greater economic and military influence.[133] The United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences, during which agreements were signed on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an Allied victory was achieved in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war.[134] The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945; the Japanese subsequently surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.[135][136] Contemporary United States (1945–present) Main articles: History of the United States (1945–1964), 1964–1980, 1980–1991, 1991–2008, and 2008–present Further information: Post–World War II economic expansion, Cold War, Soviet Union–United States relations, Space Race, Nuclear arms race, Civil rights movement, Watergate scandal, 1990s United States boom, September 11 attacks, War on Terror, Great Recession, Political polarization in the United States, COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, and January 6 United States Capitol attack After World War II, the United States launched the Marshall Plan to aid war-torn Europe, providing $13 billion ($115 billion in 2021)[137] for reconstruction. This period also marked the beginning of the Cold War, with geopolitical tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union driven by ideological differences.[138] The two countries led military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact satellite states on the other. The U.S. engaged in regime change operations against left-wing governments, conflicts like the Korean and Vietnam Wars and led the Space Race, eventually landing people on the Moon in 1969.[139][140][141][142][143] Domestically, the United States experienced economic growth, urbanization, and a rapid growth of its population following World War II. The construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's transportation infrastructure,[144][145] and Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states, expanding the country's borders.[146] See caption Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963. The civil rights movement emerged, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader in the early 1960s.[147] President Lyndon B. Johnson initiated the "Great Society", introducing policies to address poverty and racial inequalities.[148] The counterculture movement[149] and the women's movement in the U.S. brought significant social changes, including the liberalization of attitudes towards sexuality and the beginning of the modern gay rights movement.[150][151] The United States supported Israel during the Yom Kippur War, leading to the 1973 oil crisis. The 1970s and early 1980s saw stagflation and President Ronald Reagan responded with neoliberal reforms and a rollback strategy towards the Soviet Union.[152][153][154][155] The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which marked the end of the Cold War and solidified the U.S. as the world's sole superpower.[156][157][158][159] The World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City, during the September 11 attacks in 2001 In the 21st century, the U.S. faced challenges from terrorism, with the September 11 attacks, leading to the war on terror and military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq.[160][161] The financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the Great Recession impacted the nation's economy.[162] The presidencies of Barack Obama[163] and Donald Trump brought significant policy changes and political polarization. The U.S. also faced social debates on issues such as abortion access, same-sex marriage, mass shootings, police brutality, and immigration. The Capitol riot of January 6, 2021[164] and the Supreme Court's ruling on abortion rights in 2022 further fueled protests and political divisions.[165] Geography Main article: Geography of the United States A topographic map of the United States The 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km2). Of this area, 2,959,064 square miles (7,663,940 km2) is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area.[166][167] About 15% is occupied by Alaska, a state in northwestern North America, with the remainder in Hawaii, a state and archipelago in the central Pacific, and the five populated but unincorporated insular territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.[168] Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, and just ahead of Canada.[169] The United States is the world's third-largest nation by land and total area behind Russia and Canada.[c][170] The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont.[171] The Appalachian Mountains and the Adirondack massif divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest.[172] The Mississippi–Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.[172] The Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado.[173] Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua, Sonoran, and Mojave.[174] The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges also reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m). The lowest and highest points in the contiguous United States are in the state of California,[175] and only about 84 miles (135 km) apart.[176] At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and in North America.[177] Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.[178] Climate Main articles: Climate of the United States and Climate change in the United States The Köppen climate types of the United States With its large size and geographic variety, the United States includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south.[179] The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Many mountainous areas of the American West have an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii and the southern tip of Florida are tropical, as well as its territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific.[180] States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur in the country, mainly in Tornado Alley areas in the Midwest and South.[181] Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.[182] Extreme weather became more frequent in the U.S. in the 21st century, with three times the number of reported heat waves as in the 1960s. Of the ten warmest years ever recorded in the 48 contiguous states, eight occurred after 1998. In the American Southwest, droughts became more persistent and more severe.[183] Biodiversity and conservation Main articles: Fauna of the United States and Flora of the United States A bald eagle The bald eagle, the national bird of the United States since 1782[184] The U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing large numbers of endemic species: about 17000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.[185] The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 birds, 311 reptiles, and 295 amphibians,[186] and 91000 insect species.[187] There are 63 national parks, which are managed by the National Park Service, and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas, managed by the National Park Service and other agencies.[188] Altogether, about 28% of the country's land area is publicly owned and federally managed,[189] primarily located in the western states.[190] Most of this land is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching, and less than one percent of it is used for military purposes.[191][192] Environmental issues in the United States include debates on oil and nuclear energy, air and water pollution, protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation,[193][194] and climate change.[195][196] The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970, is the federal government charged with enforcing and addressing most environmental-related issues.[197] The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act.[198] The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.[199] As of 2020, the U.S. ranked 24th among 180 nations in the Environmental Performance Index.[200] The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016, and has many other environmental commitments.[201] It withdrew from the Paris Agreement in 2020[202] but rejoined it in 2021.[203] Government and politics Main articles: Constitution of the United States, Politics of the United States, and Government of the United States Further information: Political parties in the United States, Elections in the United States, Political ideologies in the United States, American patriotism, and American civil religion The Capitol and its two legislative chambers, the Senate (left) and the House of Representatives (right) The White House, the residence and workplace of the U.S. President and the offices of the presidential staff The Supreme Court Building, which houses the nation's highest court The United States is a federal republic of 50 states, a federal district, five territories and several uninhabited island possessions.[204][205][206] It is the world's oldest surviving federation, and, according to the World Economic Forum, the oldest democracy as well.[207] It is a liberal representative democracy "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law."[208] Major democracy indexes uniformly classify the country as a liberal democracy.[209] The 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index and Global Corruption Barometer rank the United States as having low levels of both actual and perceived corruption,[210][211] and human rights rankings place the United States highly.[212][213][214] The federal government comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Washington, D.C. and regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the Constitution.[215] The U.S. Congress, a bicameral legislature, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse,[216] and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the federal government.[217] The U.S. President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies through their respective agencies.[218] The U.S. Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.[219] The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The President is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.[220] The Supreme Court, led by the chief justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life. They are appointed by the sitting President when a vacancy becomes available.[221] The U.S. Constitution serves as the country's supreme legal document, establishing the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The Constitution has been amended 27 times.[222] The United States has operated under an uncodified informal two-party system for most of its history, although other parties have run candidates.[223] What the two major parties are has changed over time: the Republicans and Democrats presently are the two major parties, and the country is currently in either the Fifth or Sixth Party System.[224] Political subdivisions Main articles: Political divisions of the United States, State government in the United States, Local government in the United States, and U.S. state Further information: List of states and territories of the United States, Indian reservation, and Territories of the United States See also: Territorial evolution of the United States In the American federal system, sovereignty is shared between two levels of government: federal and state. Citizens of the states are also governed by local governments, which are administrative divisions of the states. The territories are administrative divisions of the federal government. Governance on many issues is decentralized.[225] Each of the 50 states has territory where it shares sovereignty with the federal government. States are subdivided into counties or county equivalents, and further divided into municipalities. The District of Columbia is a federal district that contains the capital of the United States, the city of Washington.[226] Each state is entitled to presidential electors whose number equals the number of their representatives and senators in Congress, and the District of Columbia has three electors.[227] Territories of the United States do not have presidential electors, therefore people there cannot vote for the president.[228] United States citizenship is granted to those born in the 50 states, Washington, D.C., or any of the U.S. territories except American Samoa.[m][232][229] Foreign-born persons who are not yet US citizens may acquire citizenship through the process of naturalization, according to the requirements of the federal Immigration and Nationality Act (INA).[233] Naturalized citizens have the same rights as those who became citizens at birth.[233] The United States observes limited tribal sovereignty for American Indian nations. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress and the federal courts. Like the states, tribes have some restrictions on their autonomy. They are prohibited from making war, engaging in foreign relations, and printing or issuing their own currency.[234] Indian reservations are usually contained within one particular state, but there are 12 reservations that cross state boundaries.[235] Foreign relations Main articles: Foreign relations of the United States and Foreign policy of the United States see caption The United Nations headquarters has been situated along the East River in Midtown Manhattan since 1952; in 1945, the United States was a founding member of the UN. The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it had the world's second-largest diplomatic corps in 2019.[236] It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council,[237] and home to the United Nations headquarters.[238] The United States is also a member of the G7,[239] G20,[240] and OECD intergovernmental organizations.[241] Almost all countries have embassies and many have consulates (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host formal diplomatic missions with the United States, except Iran,[242] North Korea,[243] and Bhutan.[244] Though Taiwan does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close, if unofficial, relations.[245] The United States also regularly supplies Taiwan with military equipment to deter potential Chinese aggression.[246] The United States has a "Special Relationship" with the United Kingdom[247] and strong ties with Canada,[248] Australia,[249] New Zealand,[250] the Philippines,[251] Japan,[252] South Korea,[253] Israel,[254] and several European Union countries (France, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Poland).[255] The U.S. works closely with its NATO allies on military and national security issues, and with nations in the Americas through the Organization of American States and the United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement. In South America, Colombia is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States.[256] The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau through the Compact of Free Association.[257] It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation with India,[258] and its ties with China have steadily deteriorated.[259][260] The U.S. has become a key ally of Ukraine since Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and began an invasion of Ukraine in 2022, significantly deteriorating relations with Russia in the process.[261][262] Military Main articles: United States Armed Forces and Military history of the United States The U.S. Air Force's B-2 Spirit, a stealth heavy strategic bomber The Pentagon, based in Arlington County, Virginia near Washington, D.C., is home to the U.S. Department of Defense. With roughly 6.5 million square feet (150 acres; 60 ha) of floor space, the Pentagon is far and away the world's largest building. The President is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Department of Defense, which is headquartered at the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Space Force. The Coast Guard is administered by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and can be transferred to the Department of the Navy in wartime.[263] The United States spent $877 billion on its military in 2022, 39% of global military spending, accounting for 3.5% of the country's GDP.[264][265] The U.S. has more than 40% of the world's nuclear weapons, the second-largest amount after Russia.[266] In 2019, all six branches of the U.S. Armed Forces reported 1.4 million personnel on active duty.[267] The Reserves and National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million.[267] The Department of Defense also employed about 700000 civilians, not including contractors.[268] Military service in the United States is voluntary, although conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System.[269] The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces.[270] Today, American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the Navy's 11 active aircraft carriers, and Marine expeditionary units at sea with the Navy, and Army's XVIII Airborne Corps and 75th Ranger Regiment deployed by Air Force transport aircraft. The Air Force can strike targets across the globe through its fleet of strategic bombers, maintains the air defense across the United States, and provides close air support to Army and Marine Corps ground forces.[271][272] The Space Force operates the Global Positioning System (GPS, also widespread in civilian use worldwide), the Eastern and Western Ranges for all space launches, and the United States's Space Surveillance and Missile Warning networks.[273][274][275] The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad,[276] and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.[277] Law enforcement and crime Main articles: Law enforcement in the United States and Crime in the United States J. Edgar Hoover Building, the headquarters of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) There are about 18000 U.S. police agencies from local to federal level in the United States.[278] Law in the United States is mainly enforced by local police departments and sheriff's offices. The state police provides broader services, and federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties, such as protecting civil rights, national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts' rulings and federal laws.[279] State courts conduct most civil and criminal trials,[280] and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals from the state criminal courts.[281] As of 2020, the United States has an intentional homicide rate of 7 per 100000 people.[282] A cross-sectional analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2010 showed that United States homicide rates "were 7.0 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25.2 times higher."[283] As of January 2023, the United States has the sixth highest per-capita incarceration rate in the world, at 531 people per 100000; and the largest prison and jail population in the world at 1767200.[284][285] In 2019, the total prison population for those sentenced to more than a year was 1430000, corresponding to a ratio of 419 per 100000 residents and the lowest since 1995.[286] Some think tanks place that number higher, such as Prison Policy Initiative's estimate of 1.9 million.[287] Various states have attempted to reduce their prison populations via government policies and grassroots initiatives.[288] Economy Main article: Economy of the United States Further information: Economic history of the United States, Taxation in the United States, United States federal budget, Federal Reserve, Income in the United States, Poverty in the United States, Affluence in the United States, and Income inequality in the United States see caption The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world's foremost reserve currency.[289] The New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street, the world's largest stock exchange by market capitalization[290] According to the International Monetary Fund, the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) is $25.5 trillion, the largest of any country in the world, constituting over 25% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and over 15% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).[291][13] From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the Group of Seven.[292] The country ranks first in the world by nominal GDP,[293] second by GDP (PPP),[13] seventh by nominal GDP per capita,[291] and eighth by GDP (PPP) per capita.[13] As of 2022, the United States was ranked 25th out of 169 countries on the Social Progress Index, which measures "the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens."[294] The U.S. has been the world's largest economy since at least 1900.[295] Apple Park, in Cupertino, California, within Silicon Valley, is the headquarters of Apple Inc., the world's biggest company by market capitalization.[296] Many of the world's largest companies, such as Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, AT&T, Coca-Cola, Disney, General Motors, McDonald's, Meta, Microsoft, Nike, Pepsi, and Walmart, were founded and are headquartered in the United States.[297] Of the world's 500 largest companies, 136 are headquartered in the U.S.[297] The United States is at or near the forefront of technological advancement and innovation[298] in many economic fields, especially in artificial intelligence; computers; pharmaceuticals; and medical, aerospace and military equipment.[299] The nation's economy is fueled by abundant natural resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.[300] It has the second-highest total-estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$44.98 trillion in 2019, although sources differ on their estimates. Americans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD member states,[301] and the fourth-highest median household income,[302] up from sixth-highest in 2013.[303] The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world's foremost reserve currency, backed by the country's dominant economy, its military, the petrodollar system, and its linked eurodollar and large U.S. treasuries market.[289] Several countries use it as their official currency and in others it is the de facto currency.[304][305] New York City is the world's principal financial center, with the largest economic output, and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy.[306][307][308] The New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq, both located in New York City, are the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and trade volume.[309][310] The largest U.S. trading partners are the European Union, Mexico, Canada, China, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Vietnam, India, and Taiwan.[311] The United States is the world's largest importer and the second-largest exporter after China.[312] It is by far the world's largest exporter of services.[313] It has free trade agreements with several countries, including the USMCA.[314] The U.S. ranked second in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2019, after Singapore.[315] While its economy has reached a post-industrial level of development, the United States remains an industrial power.[316] As of 2018, the U.S. is the second-largest manufacturing nation after China.[317] Despite the fact that the U.S. only accounted for 4.24% of the global population, residents of the U.S. collectively possessed 31.5% of the world's total wealth as of 2021, the largest percentage of any country.[318] The U.S. also ranks first in the number of dollar billionaires and millionaires, with 724 billionaires[319] and nearly 22 million millionaires (as of 2021).[320] Wealth in the United States is highly concentrated; the richest 10% of the adult population own 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom 50% own just 2%.[321] Income inequality in the U.S. remains at record highs,[322] with the top fifth of earners taking home more than half of all income[323] and giving the U.S. one of the widest income distributions among OECD members.[324] There were about 582,500 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons in the U.S. in 2022, with 60% staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program.[325] In 2018 six million children experience food insecurity.[326] Feeding America estimates that around one in seven, or approximately 11 million, children experience hunger and do not know where they will get their next meal or when.[327] As of June 2018, 40 million people, roughly 12.7% of the U.S. population, were living in poverty, including 13.3 million children.[328] The United States has a smaller welfare state and redistributes less income through government action than most other high-income countries.[329] It is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation nationally[330] and is one of a few countries in the world without federal paid family leave as a legal right.[331] The United States also has a higher percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation, largely because of a weak collective bargaining system and lack of government support for at-risk workers.[332] Science, technology, and energy Main articles: Science and technology in the United States, Science policy of the United States, and Energy in the United States U.S. astronaut Buzz Aldrin saluting the flag on the Moon during the 1969 Apollo 11 mission. The United States is the only country that has sent crewed missions to the lunar surface. The United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Methods for producing interchangeable parts and the establishment of a machine tool industry enabled the U.S. to have large-scale manufacturing of sewing machines, bicycles, and other items in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, factory electrification, the introduction of the assembly line, and other labor-saving techniques created the system of mass production.[333] In the 21st century, approximately two-thirds of research and development funding comes from the private sector.[334] In 2022, the United States was the country with the second-highest number of published scientific papers.[335] As of 2021, the U.S. ranked second by the number of patent applications, and third by trademark and industrial design applications.[336] In 2021, the United States launched a total of 51 spaceflights.[337] The U.S. had 2,944 active satellites in space in December 2021, the highest number of any country.[338] In 2022, the United States ranked 2nd in the Global Innovation Index.[339] As of 2021, the United States receives approximately 79.1% of its energy from fossil fuels.[340] In 2021, the largest source of the country's energy came from petroleum (36.1%), followed by natural gas (32.2%), coal (10.8%), renewable sources (12.5%), and nuclear power (8.4%).[340] The United States constitutes less than 5% of the world's population, but consumes 17% of the world's energy.[341] It accounts for about 25% of the world's petroleum consumption, while producing only 6% of the world's annual petroleum supply.[342] The U.S. ranks as second-highest emitter of greenhouse gases, exceeded only by China.[343] Transportation Main article: Transportation in the United States Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, serving the Atlanta metropolitan area, is the world's busiest airport by passenger traffic with over 93 million passengers annually in 2022.[344] The United States's rail network, nearly all standard gauge, is the longest in the world, and exceeds 293,564 km (182,400 mi).[345] It handles mostly freight, with intercity passenger service primarily provided by Amtrak, a government-managed company that took over services previously run by private companies, to all but four states.[346][347] Personal transportation in the United States is dominated by automobiles,[348][349] which operate on a network of 4 million miles (6.4 million kilometers) of public roads, making it the longest network in the world.[350][351] The Oldsmobile Curved Dash and the Ford Model T, both American cars, are considered the first mass-produced[352] and mass-affordable[353] cars, respectively. As of 2022, the United States is the second-largest manufacturer of motor vehicles[354] and is home to Tesla, the world's most valuable car company.[355] American automotive company General Motors held the title of the world's best-selling automaker from 1931 to 2008.[356] Currently, the American automotive industry is the world's second-largest automobile market by sales,[357] and the U.S. has the highest vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 816.4 vehicles per 1000 Americans (2014).[358] In 2017, there were 255 million non-two wheel motor vehicles, or about 910 vehicles per 1000 people.[359] The American civil airline industry is entirely privately owned and has been largely deregulated since 1978, while most major airports are publicly owned.[360] The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; American Airlines is number one after its 2013 acquisition by US Airways.[361] Of the world's 50 busiest passenger airports, 16 are in the United States, including the top five and the busiest, Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport.[362][363] As of 2020, there are 19,919 airports in the United States, of which 5,217 are designated as "public use", including for general aviation and other activities.[364] Of the fifty busiest container ports, four are located in the United States, of which the busiest is the Port of Los Angeles.[365] The country's inland waterways are the world's fifth-longest, and total 41,009 km (25,482 mi).[366] Demographics Main article: Demographics of the United States Population Main articles: Americans and Race and ethnicity in the United States See also: List of U.S. states by population United States population density map based on Census 2010 data The U.S. Census Bureau reported 331,449,281 residents as of April 1, 2020,[n][367] making the United States the third-most populous nation in the world, after China and India.[368] According to the Bureau's U.S. Population Clock, on January 28, 2021, the U.S. population had a net gain of one person every 100 seconds, or about 864 people per day.[369] In 2018, 52% of Americans age 15 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 32% had never been married.[370] In 2021, the total fertility rate for the U.S. stood at 1.7 children per woman,[371] and it had the world's highest rate of children (23%) living in single-parent households in 2019.[372] The United States has a diverse population; 37 ancestry groups have more than one million members.[373] White Americans with ancestry from Europe, the Middle East or North Africa, form the largest racial and ethnic group at 57.8% of the United States population.[374][375] Hispanic and Latino Americans form the second-largest group and are 18.7% of the United States population. African Americans constitute the nation's third-largest ancestry group and are 12.1% of the total United States population.[373] Asian Americans are the country's fourth-largest group, composing 5.9% of the United States population, while the country's 3.7 million Native Americans account for about 1%.[373] In 2020, the median age of the United States population was 38.5 years.[368] Language Main article: Languages of the United States Map of United States Official Language Status By State Map of U.S. official language status by state:   English is the official language.   Multiple official languages   No official language specified While many languages are spoken in the United States, English is the most common.[376] Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English, and most states have declared English as the official language.[377] Three states and four U.S. territories have recognized local or indigenous languages in addition to English, including Hawaii (Hawaiian),[378] Alaska (twenty Native languages),[o][379] South Dakota (Sioux),[380] American Samoa (Samoan), Puerto Rico (Spanish), Guam (Chamorro), and the Northern Mariana Islands (Carolinian and Chamorro). In Puerto Rico, Spanish is more widely spoken than English.[381] According to the American Community Survey, in 2010 some 229 million people (out of the total U.S. population of 308 million) spoke only English at home. More than 37 million spoke Spanish at home, making it the second most commonly used language. Other languages spoken at home by one million people or more include Chinese (2.8 million), Tagalog (1.6 million), Vietnamese (1.4 million), French (1.3 million), Korean (1.1 million), and German (1 million).[382] Immigration Main article: Immigration to the United States The United States has by far the highest number of immigrant population in the world, with 50,661,149 people.[383][384] In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S.-born children of immigrants in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.[385] In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7 million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3 million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2 million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5 million) were unauthorized immigrants.[386] The United States led the world in refugee resettlement for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.[387] Religion Main article: Religion in the United States See also: List of religious movements that began in the United States Religion in USA (2022 WSG and NORC)[388] Religion        Percent Protestantism       26% Other Christians       23% Catholicism       21% Nothing in particular       12% Agnosticism       8% Atheism       4% Judaism       2% Buddhism       2% Other religious       2% Islam       1% Religious affiliation in the United States is among the most diverse in the world[389] and varies significantly by region[390] and age.[391] The First Amendment guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its establishment.[392][393] The country has the world's largest Christian population[394] and a majority of Americans identify as Christian, predominately Catholic, mainline Protestant, or evangelical. According to Gallup in the early 2020s, 58% and 17% reporting praying often or sometimes, respectively, 46% and 26% reporting that religion plays a very important or fairly important role, respectively, in their lives.[395] Most Americans do not regularly attend religious services[388] and have low confidence in religious institutions.[396] Surveys conducted since 2020 indicate that between 74% and 91% of Americans believe in either a higher power or a monotheistic god.[397][398] Another 2022 Gallup poll found that 31% reported "attending a church, synagogue, mosque or temple weekly or nearly weekly".[399] In the "Bible Belt", located within the Southern United States, evangelical Protestantism plays a significant role culturally. New England and the Western United States tend to be less religious.[390] Around 6% of Americans claim a non-Christian faith;[400] the largest of which are Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.[401] The United States either has the first or second-largest Jewish population in the world, the largest outside of Israel.[402] "Ceremonial deism" is common in American culture.[392][403] Until the 1990s, the country was an outlier among highly developed countries, having a high level of religiosity and wealth, although this has lessened, with "sharp declines in church attendance, confidence in organized religion and religious identification..." since then.[397][400][404] Around 30-33% of Americans describe themselves as having no religion,[400][405] with some retaining some beliefs and practices.[406] Membership in a house of worship fell from 70% in 1999 to 47% in 2020.[407] Urbanization Main articles: Urbanization in the United States and List of United States cities by population About 82% of Americans live in urban areas, including suburbs;[170] about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50000.[408] In 2008, 273 incorporated municipalities had populations over 100000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four cities (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston) had populations exceeding two million.[409] Many U.S. metropolitan populations are growing rapidly, particularly in the South and West.[410]  vte Largest metropolitan areas in the United States 2021 MSA population estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau Rank    Name    Region    Pop.    Rank    Name    Region    Pop.     New York New York Los Angeles Los Angeles    1    New York    Northeast    19,768,458    11    Boston    Northeast    4,899,932    Chicago Chicago Dallas–Fort Worth Dallas–Fort Worth 2    Los Angeles    West    12,997,353    12    Riverside–San Bernardino    West    4,653,105 3    Chicago    Midwest    9,509,934    13    San Francisco    West    4,623,264 4    Dallas–Fort Worth    South    7,759,615    14    Detroit    Midwest    4,365,205 5    Houston    South    7,206,841    15    Seattle    West    4,011,553 6    Washington, D.C.    South    6,356,434    16    Minneapolis–Saint Paul    Midwest    3,690,512 7    Philadelphia    Northeast    6,228,601    17    San Diego    West    3,286,069 8    Atlanta    South    6,144,050    18    Tampa–St. Petersburg    South    3,219,514 9    Miami    South    6,091,747    19    Denver    West    2,972,566 10    Phoenix    West    4,946,145    20    Baltimore    South    2,838,327 Education Main articles: Education in the United States and Higher education in the United States Photograph of the University of Virginia The University of Virginia, founded by Thomas Jefferson in 1819, is one of many public colleges and universities in the United States. American public education is operated by state and local governments and regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of five or six (beginning with kindergarten or first grade) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.[411] Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.[412] The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%.[170][413] The United States has many private and public institutions of higher education. There are local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.[414] The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world,[415] spending an average of $12,794 per year on public elementary and secondary school students in the 2016–2017 school year.[416] As for public expenditures on higher education, the U.S. spends more per student than the OECD average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending.[417] Despite some student loan forgiveness programs in place,[418] student loan debt has increased by 102% in the last decade,[419] and exceeded 1.7 trillion dollars as of 2022.[420] The large majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the United States, including 19 of the top 25.[421][422][423][424] The country has by far the most Nobel Prize winners in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards).[425] Health See also: Healthcare in the United States, Healthcare reform in the United States, and Health insurance in the United States The Texas Medical Center, a cluster of contemporary skyscrapers, at night Texas Medical Center in Houston is the largest medical complex in the world, employing 106000 people and treating 10 million patients annually as of 2016.[426] In a preliminary report, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced that U.S. life expectancy at birth had dropped to 76.4 years in 2021 (73.2 years for men and 79.1 years for women), down 0.9 years from 2020. This was the second year of overall decline, and the chief causes listed were the COVID-19 pandemic, accidents, drug overdoses, heart and liver disease, and suicides.[427][428] Life expectancy was highest among Asians and Hispanics and lowest among Blacks and American Indian–Alaskan Native (AIAN) peoples.[429][430] Starting in 1998, the life expectancy in the U.S. fell behind that of other wealthy industrialized countries, and Americans' "health disadvantage" gap has been increasing ever since.[431] The U.S. also has one of the highest suicide rates among high-income countries,[432] and approximately one-third of the U.S. adult population is obese and another third is overweight.[433] According to CDC data, mortality rates among children and adolescents increased by 20% from 2019 to 2021.[434][435] Poverty was the 4th leading cause of death for 2019, according to a 2023 study published in JAMA.[436] In 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic collisions caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most harmful risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. Alzheimer's disease, substance use disorders, kidney disease, cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates.[437] Teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in the U.S. are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among Blacks and Hispanics.[438] The U.S. health care system far outspends that of any other nation, measured both in per capita spending and as a percentage of GDP but attains worse health care outcomes when compared to peer nations.[439] The United States is the only developed nation without a system of universal health care, and a significant proportion of the population that does not carry health insurance.[440] Government-funded health care coverage for the poor (Medicaid, established in 1965) and for those age 65 and older (Medicare, begun in 1966) is available to Americans who meet the programs' income or age qualifications. In 2010, former President Obama passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act or ACA,[p][441] with the law roughly halving the uninsured share of the population according to the CDC.[442] Multiple studies have concluded that ACA had reduced the mortality of enrollees.[443][444][445] However, its legacy remains controversial.[446] Culture and society Main articles: Culture of the United States and Society of the United States The Statue of Liberty, a large teal bronze sculpture on a stone pedestal The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) on Liberty Island in New York Harbor was an 1866 gift from France that has become an iconic symbol of the American Dream.[447] Americans have traditionally been characterized by a unifying belief in an "American creed" emphasizing liberty, equality under the law, democracy, social equality, property rights, and a preference for limited government.[448][449] Individualism,[450][451] having a strong work ethic,[452] competitiveness,[453] and altruism[454][455][456] are also cited values. According to a 2016 study by the Charities Aid Foundation, Americans donated 1.44% of total GDP to charity, the highest in the world by a large margin.[457] The United States is home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values,[458][459] and exerts major cultural influence on a global scale,[460][461] with the phenomenon being termed Americanization.[462] As such, the U.S. is considered a cultural superpower.[463] Nearly all present Americans or their ancestors came from Eurafrasia ("the Old World") within the past five centuries.[464] Mainstream American culture is a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from Africa.[458][465] More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added to a cultural mix that has been described as a homogenizing melting pot, and a heterogeneous salad bowl, with immigrants contributing to, and often assimilating into, mainstream American culture.[458] The American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants.[466] Whether this perception is accurate has been a topic of debate.[467][468][469] While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society,[470] scholars identify significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values.[471] Americans tend to greatly value socioeconomic achievement, but being ordinary or average is promoted by some as a noble condition as well.[472] The United States is considered to have the strongest protections of free speech of any country in the world under the First Amendment,[473] with the Supreme Court ruling that flag desecration, hate speech, blasphemy, and lese-majesty are all forms of protected expression.[474][475][476] A 2016 Pew Research Center poll found that Americans were the most supportive of free expression of any polity measured.[477] They are also the "most supportive of freedom of the press and the right to use the Internet without government censorship."[478] It is a socially progressive country[479] with permissive attitudes surrounding human sexuality.[480] LGBT rights in the U.S. are among the most advanced in the world.[480][481][482] Mass media Further information: Mass media in the United States See also: Newspapers in the United States, Television in the United States, Internet in the United States, Radio in the United States, and Video games in the United States Comcast Center in Philadelphia, headquarters of Comcast, the world's largest telecommunications and media conglomerate The four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and Fox Broadcasting Company (FOX). The four major broadcast television networks are all commercial entities. Cable television offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches.[483] As of 2021, about 83% of Americans over age 12 listen to broadcast radio, while about 41% listen to podcasts.[484] As of September 30, 2014, there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the U.S. according to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).[485] Much of the public radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR, incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967.[486] Globally-recognized newspapers in the United States include The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, The Washington Post, and USA Today.[487] More than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most commonly used language in the United States behind English.[488][489] With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or, in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have alternative newspapers to complement the mainstream daily papers, such as The Village Voice in New York City and LA Weekly in Los Angeles. The five most popular websites used in the U.S. are Google, YouTube, Amazon, Yahoo, and Facebook, with all of them being American companies.[490] The video game market of the United States is the world's second-largest by revenue.[491] Major publishers headquartered in the United States are Sony Interactive Entertainment, Take-Two, Activision Blizzard, Electronic Arts, Xbox Game Studios, Bethesda Softworks, Epic Games, Valve, Warner Bros., Riot Games, and others.[492][493] There are 444 publishers, developers, and hardware companies in California alone.[494] Literature and visual arts Main articles: American literature, American philosophy, Architecture of the United States, and Visual art of the United States Photograph of Mark Twain American author and humorist Mark Twain, who William Faulkner called "the father of American literature"[495] In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of their cues from Europe. Writers such as Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as an essential American poet.[496] In the 1920s, the New Negro Movement coalesced in Harlem, where many writers had migrated from the South and West Indies. Its pan-African perspective was a significant cultural export during the Jazz Age in Paris and as such was a key early influence on the négritude philosophy.[497] Since its first use in the 19th century, the term "Great American Novel" has been applied to many books, including Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925), John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (1939), Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960), Toni Morrison's Beloved (1987), and David Foster Wallace's Infinite Jest (1996).[498][499][500] Thirteen U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Louise Glück, Bob Dylan, and Toni Morrison.[501] Earlier laureates William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck have also been recognized as influential 20th century writers.[502] In the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.[503] Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new, individualistic styles, which would become known as American modernism. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has brought global fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry.[504] Major photographers include Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Dorothea Lange, Edward Weston, James Van Der Zee, Ansel Adams, and Gordon Parks.[505] The uniquely American "Chicago School" refers to two architectural styles derived from the architecture of Chicago. In the history of architecture, the first Chicago School was a school of architects active in Chicago in the late 19th, and at the turn of the 20th century. They were among the first to promote the new technologies of steel-frame construction in commercial buildings, and developed a spatial aesthetic which co-evolved with, and then came to influence, parallel developments in European Modernism. Much of its early work is also known as "Commercial Style".[506] A "Second Chicago School" with a modernist aesthetic emerged in the 1940s through 1970s, which pioneered new building technologies and structural systems, such as the tube-frame structure.[507] Americans who have had dramatic influences on national and international architecture include Maya Lin, Frederick Law Olmstead, I.M. Pei,Stanford White, and Frank Loyd Wright. Cinema and theater Main articles: Cinema of the United States and Theater in the United States The United States movie industry has a worldwide influence and following. Hollywood, a district in northern Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city, is the leader in motion picture production and the most recognizable movie industry in the world.[508][509][510] The major film studios of the United States are the primary source of the most commercially successful and most ticket-selling movies in the world.[511][512] The iconic Hollywood Sign, in the Hollywood Hills, often regarded as the symbol of the American film industry Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.[513] The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929,[514] and the Golden Globe Awards have been held annually since January 1944.[515] Director D. W. Griffith's film adaptation of The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan was the first American blockbuster, earning the equivalent of $1.8 billion in current dollars. The technical achievements of the film revolutionized film grammar, while its subject matter caused both strident protest and a revitalization of the Klan.[516] Producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising.[517] Directors such as John Ford redefined the image of the American Old West, and, like others such as John Huston, broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the "Golden Age of Hollywood", from the early sound period until the early 1960s,[518] with screen actors such as John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe becoming iconic figures.[519][520] In the 1970s, "New Hollywood" or the "Hollywood Renaissance"[521] was defined by grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the post-war period.[522] The 21st century has been marked by the rise of American streaming platforms, such as Netflix, Disney+, Paramount+, and Apple TV+, which came to rival traditional cinema.[523][524] Mainstream theater in the United States derives from the old European theatrical tradition and has been heavily influenced by the British theater.[525] The central hub of the American theater scene has been Manhattan, with its divisions of Broadway, off-Broadway, and off-off-Broadway.[526] Many movie and television stars have gotten their big break working in New York productions. Outside New York City, many cities have professional regional or resident theater companies that produce their own seasons. The biggest-budget theatrical productions are musicals. U.S. theater also has an active community theater culture.[527] Music Main article: Music of the United States The Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, Tennessee American folk music encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as traditional music, traditional folk music, contemporary folk music, or roots music. Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as the British Isles, Mainland Europe, or Africa.[528] The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have significantly influenced American music at large. The Smithsonian Institution states, "African-American influences are so fundamental to American music that there would be no American music without them."[529] One instrument first mass-produced in the United States was the banjo, which had originally been crafted from gourds covered by animal skins by African slaves.[530][531] Banjos became widely popular in the 19th century due to their use in minstrel shows.[530] Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the 20th century.[532] Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry were among the pioneers of rock and roll in the mid-1950s. Rock bands such as Metallica, the Eagles, and Aerosmith are among the highest grossing in worldwide sales.[533][534][535] In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of the country's most celebrated songwriters.[536] Mid-20th-century American pop stars such as Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra,[537] and Elvis Presley became global celebrities,[532] as have artists of the late 20th century such as Prince, Michael Jackson, Madonna, Whitney Houston, and Mariah Carey.[538][539] The musical forms of punk and hip hop both originated in the United States.[540] American professional opera singers have reached the highest level of success in that form, including Renée Fleming, Leontyne Price, Beverly Sills, Nelson Eddy, and many others.[541] American popular music, as part of the wider U.S. pop culture, has a worldwide influence and following.[542] Beyoncé, Taylor Swift, Miley Cyrus, Ariana Grande, Eminem, Lady Gaga, Katy Perry, and many other contemporary artists dominate global streaming rankings.[543] The United States has the world's largest music market with a total retail value of $4.9 billion in 2014.[544] Most of the world's major record companies are based in the U.S.; they are represented by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).[545] Cuisine Main article: American cuisine Further information: List of American regional and fusion cuisines A cheeseburger served with fries and coleslaw Early settlers were introduced by Native Americans to such indigenous, non-European foods as turkey, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup. They and later immigrants combined these with foods they had known, such as wheat flour,[546] beef, and milk to create a distinctive American cuisine.[547][548] Homegrown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays, Thanksgiving, when many Americans make or purchase traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.[549] The American fast food industry, the world's first and largest, is often viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance. Companies such as McDonald's,[550] Burger King, Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Domino's Pizza, among others, have numerous outlets around the world,[551] and pioneered the drive-through format in the 1940s.[552] Characteristic American dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, doughnuts, french fries, macaroni and cheese, ice cream, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants.[553][554] Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed.[555] Sports Main article: Sports in the United States See also: Professional sports leagues in the United States, National Collegiate Athletic Association, and United States at the Olympics American football is the most popular sport in the United States; in this September 2022 National Football League game, the Jacksonville Jaguars play the Washington Commanders at FedExField. The most popular spectator sports in the U.S. are American football, basketball, baseball, soccer, and ice hockey, according to a 2017 Gallup poll.[556] While most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide.[557] Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate European contact.[558] The market for professional sports in the United States was approximately $69 billion in July 2013, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.[559] American football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States;[560] the National Football League (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the Super Bowl is watched by tens of millions globally.[561] Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball being the top league. Basketball, soccer and ice hockey are the country's next three most popular professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, which are also the premier leagues worldwide for these sports. The most-watched individual sports in the U.S. are golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR and IndyCar.[562][563] On the collegiate level, earnings for the member institutions exceed $1 billion annually,[564] and college football and basketball attract large audiences, as the NCAA Final Four is one of the most watched national sporting events.[565] Eight Olympic Games have taken place in the United States. The 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri, were the first-ever Olympic Games held outside of Europe.[566] The Olympic Games will be held in the U.S. for a ninth time when Los Angeles hosts the 2028 Summer Olympics. U.S. athletes have won a total of 2,959 medals (1,173 gold) at the Olympic Games, by far the most of any country.[567][568][569] In international soccer, the men's national soccer team qualified for eleven World Cups, and the women's national team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup and Olympic soccer tournament four times each.[570] The United States hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup and will co-host, along with Canada and Mexico, the 2026 FIFA World Cup.[571] See also Lists of U.S. state topics Outline of the United States Notes  30 of 50 states recognize only English as an official language. The state of Hawaii recognizes both Hawaiian and English as official languages, the state of Alaska officially recognizes 20 Alaska Native languages alongside English, and the state of South Dakota recognizes O'ceti Sakowin as an official language.  The historical and informal demonym Yankee has been applied to Americans, New Englanders, or northeasterners since the 18th century.  At 3,531,900 sq mi (9,147,590 km2), the United States is the third-largest country in the world by land area, behind Russia and China. By total area (land and water), it is the third-largest behind Russia and Canada, if its coastal and territorial water areas are included. However, if only its internal waters are included (bays, sounds, rivers, lakes, and the Great Lakes), the U.S. is the fourth-largest, after Russia, Canada, and China. Coastal/territorial waters included: 3,796,742 sq mi (9,833,517 km2)[18] Only internal waters included: 3,696,100 sq mi (9,572,900 km2)[19]  Excludes Puerto Rico and the other unincorporated islands because they are counted separately in U.S. census statistics.  After adjustment for taxes and transfers  See Time in the United States for details about laws governing time zones in the United States.  See Date and time notation in the United States.  A single jurisdiction, the U.S. Virgin Islands, uses left-hand traffic.  The five major territories are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. There are eleven smaller island areas without permanent populations: Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, and Palmyra Atoll. U.S. sovereignty over Bajo Nuevo Bank, Navassa Island, Serranilla Bank, and Wake Island is disputed.[17]  The United States has a maritime border with the British Virgin Islands, a British territory, since the BVI borders the U.S. Virgin Islands.[20] BVI is a British Overseas Territory but itself is not a part of the United Kingdom.[21] Puerto Rico has a maritime border with the Dominican Republic.[22] American Samoa has a maritime border with the Cook Islands, maintained under the Cook Islands–United States Maritime Boundary Treaty.[23][24] American Samoa also has maritime borders with independent Samoa and Niue.[25]  The U.S. Census Bureau provides a continuously updated but unofficial population clock in addition to its decennial census and annual population estimates: www.census.gov/popclock  New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia  People born in American Samoa are non-citizen U.S. nationals unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen.[229] In 2019, a court ruled that American Samoans are U.S. citizens, but the litigation is ongoing.[230][231]  This figure, like most official data for the United States as a whole, excludes the five unincorporated territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands) and minor island possessions.  Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unanga (Aleut), Denaʼina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwichʼin, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian  Also known less formally as Obamacare References  36 U.S.C. § 302  "The Great Seal of the United States" (PDF). 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External links Library resources about United States Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "United States". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Key Development Forecasts for the United States from International Futures Government Official U.S. Government web portal. Gateway to government sites. House. Official site of the United States House of Representatives. Senate. Official site of the United States Senate. White House. Official site of the President of the United States. Supreme Court. Official site of the Supreme Court of the United States. History "Historical Documents". National Center for Public Policy Research. "U.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality". Religious Tolerance. Archived November 19, 2022, at the Wayback Machine. Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. "Historical Statistics". Collected links to United States historical data. Maps "National Atlas of the United States". 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Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Authority control Edit this at Wikidata International     FASTISNIVIAFWorldCat National     NorwaySpainFranceBnF dataArgentinaCataloniaGermanyItalyIsrael 2United StatesSwedenJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaGreeceKoreaPolandPortugalVatican Geographic     MusicBrainz area Academics     CiNii People     Trove 234 Other     Historical Dictionary of SwitzerlandNARAIdRefİslâm Ansiklopedisi Categories: United StatesCountries in North AmericaEnglish-speaking countries and territoriesFederal constitutional republicsFormer British colonies and protectorates in the AmericasFormer confederationsG20 nationsMember states of NATOMember states of the United NationsStates and territories established in 1776Transcontinental countries Slavery Slavery Shackles Contemporary     Child labour Child soldiers Conscription Debt Forced marriage         Bride buying Child marriage Wife selling Forced prostitution Human trafficking Peonage Penal labour Contemporary Africa 21st-century jihadism Sexual slavery Wage slavery Historical Antiquity     Egypt Babylonia Greece Rome Medieval Europe     Byzantine Empire Kholop Serfs         History In Russia Emancipation Thrall Muslim world     Contract of manumission Ottoman Empire         Avret Esir Pazarları Barbary Coast         slave trade pirates Turkish Abductions Concubinage         history Ma malakat aymanukum Avret Esir Pazarları Harem Abbasid harem Ottoman Imperial Harem Jarya/Cariye Odalisque Qiyan Umm walad 21st century Atlantic slave trade     Bristol Brazil Database Dutch Middle Passage Nantes New France Panyarring Spanish Empire Slave Coast Thirteen colonies Topics and practice     Conscription         Ghilman Mamluk Devshirme Blackbirding Coolie Corvée labor Field slaves in the United States         Treatment House slaves Saqaliba Slave market Slave raiding Child soldiers White slavery Naval     Galley slave Impressment Pirates Shanghaiing Slave ship By country or region Sub-Saharan Africa     Contemporary Africa Trans-Saharan slave trade Indian Ocean slave trade Angola Chad Ethiopia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Seychelles Somalia South Africa Sudan North and South America     Americas indigenous         U.S. Natives Aztec United States         Field slaves female Contemporary maps partus prison labor Slave codes Treatment interregional Human trafficking The Bahamas Canada Caribbean         Barbados British Virgin Islands Trinidad Code Noir Latin America Brazil         Lei Áurea Colombia Cuba Haiti         revolt Restavek (Encomienda) Puerto Rico East, Southeast, and South Asia     Human trafficking in Southeast Asia Bhutan China         Booi Aha Laogai penal system India         Debt bondage Chukri System Japan         comfort women Korea         Kwalliso Thailand         Yankee princess Vietnam Australia and Oceania     Australia         Human trafficking Blackbirding Slave raiding in Easter Island Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea Blackbirding in Polynesia Europe and North Asia     Sex trafficking in Europe Britain Denmark Dutch Republic Germany in World War II Malta Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain Sweden North Africa and West Asia     Afghanistan Algeria Bahrain Egypt Human trafficking in the Middle East Iran Kuwait Libya Morocco Oman Saudi Arabia Tunisia Qatar Yemen United Arab Emirates Religion     Bible Christianity         Catholicism Mormonism Islam Judaism Baháʼí Faith Opposition and resistance     1926 Slavery Convention Abolitionism         U.K. U.S. Abolitionists Anti-Slavery International Blockade of Africa         U.K. U.S. Colonization         Liberia Sierra Leone Compensated emancipation Freedman         manumission Freedom suit Slave Power Underground Railroad         songs Slave rebellion Slave Trade Acts International law Third Servile War 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf [fa] Related     Common law Indentured servitude Unfree labour Fugitive slaves         laws Great Dismal Swamp maroons List of slaves         owners last surviving American enslaved people Marriage of enslaved people (United States) Slave narrative         films songs Slave name Slave catcher Slave patrol Slave Route Project         breeding court cases Washington Jefferson Adams Lincoln 40 acres Freedmen's Bureau Iron bit Emancipation Day     vte Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labor.[1] Slavery typically involves compulsory work with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavement is the placement of a person into slavery. Many historical cases of enslavement occurred as a result of breaking the law, becoming indebted, suffering a military defeat, or exploitation for cheaper labor; other forms of slavery were instituted along demographic lines such as race or sex. Slaves may be kept in bondage for life, or for a fixed period of time after which they would be granted freedom.[2] Although slavery is usually involuntary and involves coercion, there are also cases where people voluntarily enter into slavery to pay a debt or earn money due to poverty. In the course of human history, slavery was a typical feature of civilization,[3] and was legal in most societies, but it is now outlawed in most countries of the world, except as a punishment for a crime.[4][5] In chattel slavery, the slave is legally rendered the personal property (chattel) of the slave owner. In economics, the term de facto slavery describes the conditions of unfree labour and forced labour that most slaves endure.[6] The Islamic Republic of Mauritania was the last internationally recognized country in the world to officially ban slavery, however the actual effects of the ban are disputed.[7] The Islamic State enslaved hundreds of thousands of people in the Middle East during its brief conquests in mid 2010-s. In 2007, "under international pressure", its government passed a law allowing slaveholders to be prosecuted.[8] However, in 2019, approximately 40 million people, of whom 26% were children, were still enslaved throughout the world despite slavery being illegal. In the modern world, more than 50% of slaves provide forced labour, usually in the factories and sweatshops of the private sector of a country's economy.[9] In industrialised countries, human trafficking is a modern variety of slavery; in non-industrialised countries, enslavement by debt bondage is a common form of enslaving a person,[6] such as captive domestic servants, people in forced marriages, and child soldiers.[10] Terminology The word slave arrived in modern English from Middle English sclave, from Old French esclave, from Late Middle High German sklave, from Medieval Latin sclāvus, from Late Latin Sclāvus, from Byzantine Greek Σκλάβος [Sklábos], Έσκλαβήνος [Ésklabḗnos]. According to the widespread view, which has been known since the 18th century, Byzantine Σκλάβινοι [Sklábinoi], Έσκλαβηνοί [Ésklabēnoí], borrowed from Slavic gen self-name *Slověninŭ turned into Σκλάβος, Έσκλαβήνος (Late Latin Sclāvus) in the meaning 'prisoner of war Slave', 'slave' in 8th/9th century, because they often became captured and enslaved.[11][12][13][14] However this version has been disputed since the 19th century.[15][16] An alternative contemporary hypothesis states that Medieval Latin sclāvus via *scylāvus derives from Byzantine σκυλάω [skūláō, skyláō], σκυλεύω [skūleúō, skyleúō] – "to strip the enemy (killed in a battle)", "to make booty / extract spoils of war".[17][18][19][20] This version is criticized as well.[21] There is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as "unfree labourer" or "enslaved person", rather than "slave", should be used when describing the victims of slavery. According to those proposing a change in terminology, slave perpetuates the crime of slavery in language by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were" (see also People-first language). Other historians prefer slave because the term is familiar and shorter, or because it accurately reflects the inhumanity of slavery, with person implying a degree of autonomy that slavery does not allow.[22] Chattel slavery Flogging a slave fastened to the ground, illustration in an 1853 anti-slavery pamphlet A poster for a slave auction in Georgia, U.S., 1860 Portrait of an older woman in New Orleans with her enslaved servant girl in the mid-19th century As a social institution, chattel slavery classes slaves as chattels (personal property) owned by the enslaver; like livestock, they can be bought and sold at will.[23] Chattel slavery was practiced in places such as the Roman Empire and classical Greece, where it was considered a keystone of society.[24][25] Chattel slavery reached its modern extreme in the Americas during European colonization.[26] Beginning in the 18th century, a series of abolitionist movements saw slavery as a violation of the slaves' rights as people ("all men are created equal"), and sought to abolish it. Abolitionism encountered extreme resistance but was eventually successful; the last New World country to abolish slavery was Brazil, in 1888.[27] The last country to abolish slavery, Mauritania, did so in 1981. The 1981 ban on slavery was not effectively enforced in practice, as there were no legal mechanisms to prosecute those who used slaves. This only came in 2007. Bonded labour Main article: Debt bondage See also: Money marriage and Chukri system Indenture, also known as bonded labour or debt bondage, is a form of unfree labour in which a person works to pay off a debt by pledging himself or herself as collateral. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their progenitors' debt.[28] It is the most widespread form of slavery today.[29] Debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia.[28] Money marriage refers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents.[30] The Chukri system is a debt bondage system found in parts of Bengal where a female can be coerced into prostitution in order to pay off debts.[31] Dependents The word "slavery" has also been used to refer to a legal state of dependency to somebody else.[32][33] For example, in Persia, the situations and lives of such slaves could be better than those of common citizens.[34] Forced labour Main article: Unfree labour See also: Human trafficking Forced labour, or unfree labour, is sometimes used to describe an individual who is forced to work against their own will, under threat of violence or other punishment, but the generic term "unfree labour" is also used to describe chattel slavery, as well as any other situation in which a person is obliged to work against their own will, and a person's ability to work productively is under the complete control of another person.[citation needed] This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription and penal labour. While some unfree labourers, such as serfs, have substantive, de jure legal or traditional rights, they also have no ability to terminate the arrangements under which they work and are frequently subject to forms of coercion, violence, and restrictions on their activities and movement outside their place of work.[citation needed] As slavery has been legally outlawed in all countries, forced labour in the present day (frequently referred to as "modern slavery") revolves around illegal control. Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution and is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico having been identified as leading hotspots of commercial sexual exploitation of children.[35][36] Child soldiers and child labor Main article: Child slavery See also: Child labour and Military use of children In 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in then-current conflicts.[37] More girls under 16 work as domestic workers than any other category of child labour, often sent to cities by parents living in rural poverty[38] as with the Haitian restaveks. Forced marriage See also: Marriage by abduction and Child marriage Forced marriages or early marriages are often considered types of slavery.[citation needed] Forced marriage continues to be practiced in parts of the world including some parts of Asia and Africa and in immigrant communities in the West.[39][40][41][42] Sacred prostitution is where girls and women are pledged to priests or those of higher castes, such as the practice of Devadasi in South Asia or fetish slaves in West Africa.[citation needed] Marriage by abduction occurs in many places in the world today, with a 2003 study finding a national average of 69% of marriages in Ethiopia being through abduction.[43] Other uses of the term The word slavery is often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing. Some argue that military drafts and other forms of coerced government labour constitute "state-operated slavery."[44][45] Some libertarians and anarcho-capitalists view government taxation as a form of slavery.[46] "Slavery" has been used by some anti-psychiatry proponents to define involuntary psychiatric patients, claiming there are no unbiased physical tests for mental illness and yet the psychiatric patient must follow the orders of the psychiatrist. They assert that instead of chains to control the slave, the psychiatrist uses drugs to control the mind.[47] Drapetomania was a pseudoscientific psychiatric diagnosis for a slave who desired freedom; "symptoms" included laziness and the tendency to flee captivity.[48][49] Some proponents of animal rights have applied the term slavery to the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves.[50] The labour market, as institutionalized under contemporary capitalist systems, has been criticized by mainstream socialists and by anarcho-syndicalists, who utilise the term wage slavery as a pejorative or dysphemism for wage labour.[51][52][53] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[54] Characteristics Economics Economists have modeled the circumstances under which slavery (and variants such as serfdom) appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for landowners where land is abundant but labour is scarce, such that rent is depressed and paid workers can demand high wages. If the opposite holds true, then it is more costly for landowners to guard the slaves than to employ paid workers who can demand only low wages because of the degree of competition.[55] Thus, first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew. They were reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia as large areas of land with few inhabitants became available.[56] Slavery is more common when the tasks are relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large-scale monocrops such as sugarcane and cotton, in which output depended on economies of scale. This enables systems of labour, such as the gang system in the United States, to become prominent on large plantations where field hands toiled with factory-like precision. Then, each work gang was based on an internal division of labour that assigned every member of the gang to a task and made each worker's performance dependent on the actions of the others. The slaves chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excess sprouts. Plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like an assembly line.[57] Since the 18th century, critics have argued that slavery hinders technological advancement because the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading their efficiency. For example, it is sometimes argued that, because of this narrow focus, technology in Greece – and later in Rome – was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing.[58] The work of the Mercedarians was in ransoming Christian slaves held in North Africa (1637). Scottish economist Adam Smith stated that free labour was economically better than slave labour, and that it was nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic, or republican form of government since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners, and would not punish themselves. He further stated that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom under centralized government, or a central authority like a king or church.[59][60] Similar arguments appeared later in the works of Auguste Comte, especially given Smith's belief in the separation of powers, or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during the Middle Ages and the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in the Lectures on Jurisprudence, "The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues..."[61] Sale and inspection of slaves Even after slavery became a criminal offense, slave owners could get high returns. According to researcher Siddharth Kara, the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 were $91.2 billion. That was second only to drug trafficking, in terms of global criminal enterprises. At the time the weighted average global sales price of a slave was estimated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labour and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave. Approximately 40% of slave profits each year were generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4% of the world's 29 million slaves.[62] Identification Branding of a female slave Barefooted slaves depicted in David Roberts' Egypt and Nubia, issued between 1845 and 1849 Slave branding, c. 1853 A widespread practice was branding, either to explicitly mark slaves as property or as punishment. Legal aspects Private versus state-owned slaves Slaves have been owned privately by individuals but have also been under state ownership. For example, the kisaeng were women from low castes in pre modern Korea, who were owned by the state under government officials known as hojang and were required to provide entertainment to the aristocracy; in the 2020s some are denoted Kippumjo (the pleasure brigades of North Korea — serving as the concubines of the rulers of the state).[63] "Tribute labor" is compulsory labor for the state and has been used in various iterations such as corvée, mit'a and repartimiento. The internment camps of totalitarian regimes such as the Nazis and the Soviet Union placed increasing importance on the labor provided in those camps, leading to a growing tendency among historians to designate such systems as slavery.[64] A combination of these include the encomienda where the Spanish Crown granted private individuals the right to the free labour of a specified number of natives in a given area.[65] In the "Red Rubber System" in the Congo Free State , as well as French ruled Ubangi-Shari,[66] labour was demanded as taxation and private companies in the areas that they were granted concessions were allowed to use any measures to increase rubber production.[67] Convict leasing was common in the Southern United States where the state would lease prisoners for their free labour to companies. Legal rights Depending upon the era and the country, slaves sometimes had a limited set of legal rights. For example, in the Province of New York, people who deliberately killed slaves were punishable under a 1686 statute.[68] And, as already mentioned, certain legal rights attached to the nobi in Korea, to slaves in various African societies, and to black female slaves in the French colony of Louisiana. Giving slaves legal rights has sometimes been a matter of morality, but also sometimes a matter of self-interest. For example, in ancient Athens, protecting slaves from mistreatment simultaneously protected people who might be mistaken for slaves, and giving slaves limited property rights incentivized slaves to work harder to get more property.[69] In the southern United States prior to the extirpation of slavery in 1865, a proslavery legal treatise reported that slaves accused of crimes typically had a legal right to counsel, freedom from double jeopardy, a right to trial by jury in graver cases, and the right to grand jury indictment, but they lacked many other rights such as white adults' ability to control their own lives.[70] History Main article: History of slavery See also: Slavery in antiquity Corinthian black-figure terra-cotta votive tablet of slaves working in a mine, dated to the late seventh century BC Slavery predates written records and has existed in many cultures.[3] Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations because it requires economic surpluses and a substantial population density. Thus, although it has existed among unusually resource-rich hunter gatherers, such as the American Indian peoples of the salmon-rich rivers of the Pacific Northwest coast, slavery became widespread only with the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.[71] Slavery was practiced in almost every ancient civilization.[3] Such institutions included debt bondage, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the enslavement of slaves' offspring.[72] Africa See also: Slavery in Africa Slavery was widespread in Africa, which pursued both internal and external slave trade.[73] In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sahel, including Ghana, Mali, Segou, and Songhai, about a third of the population were enslaved.[74] In European courtly society, and European aristocracy, black African slaves and their children became visible in the late 1300s and 1400s. Starting with Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, black Africans were included in the retinue. In 1402 an Ethiopian embassy reached Venice. In the 1470s black Africans were painted as court attendants in wall paintings that were displayed in Mantua and Ferrara. In the 1490s black Africans were included on the emblem of the Duke of Milan.[75] 13th-century slave market in Yemen.[76] During the trans-Saharan slave trade, slaves from West Africa were transported across the Sahara desert to North Africa to be sold to Mediterranean and Middle eastern civilizations. The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the east African slave trade, was multi-directional. Africans were sent as slaves to the Arabian Peninsula, to Indian Ocean islands (including Madagascar), to the Indian subcontinent, and later to the Americas. These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj) from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania and brought them to the coast.[77][78] There, the slaves gradually assimilated in rural areas, particularly on Unguja and Pemba islands.[79] Some historians assert that as many as 17 million people were sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa, and approximately 5 million African slaves were bought by Muslim slave traders and taken from Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert between 1500 and 1900.[80] The captives were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.[79][81][82] The Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labour, Bantu slaves bought by east African slave traders from southeastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, European colonies in the Far East, the Indian Ocean islands, Ethiopia and Somalia.[83] According to the Encyclopedia of African History, "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture."[84][85] The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million.[86] Slave labour in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.[78][87] The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in Iraq. The Zanj Rebellion, a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 near Basra (also known as Basara), situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the African Great Lakes region and areas further south in East Africa.[88] It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".[89] The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.[90] As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labour work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labour shortage led to an increased slave market. Slave market in Algiers, 1684 In Algiers, the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. In about 1650, there were as many as 35,000 Christian slaves in Algiers.[91] By one estimate, raids by Barbary slave traders on coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 to 1.25 million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries.[92][93][94] However, this estimate is the result of an extrapolation which assumes that the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates was constant for a 250-year period:     There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000.[95] Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe.[95] In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.[96] Such observations, across the late 16th and early 17th century observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.[97] This eventually led to the bombardment of Algiers by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816.[98][99] Arab-Swahili slave traders and their captives on the Ruvuma River in East Africa, 19th century Under Omani Arabs, Zanzibar became East Africa's main slave port, with as many as 50,000 African slaves passing through every year during the 19th century.[100][101] Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[3][failed verification][102] Eduard Rüppell described the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5,000 made it to Egypt."[103] W.A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor, Gustav Nachtigal, an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way ... Keltie (The Partition of Africa, London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. Livingstone puts the figure as high as ten to one."[104] Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the ancient world. In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the slaves were not treated as chattel slaves and were given certain rights in a system similar to indentured servitude elsewhere in the world. The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to kinship structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections.[105] This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties.[106] Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master.[105] Slavery was practiced in many different forms: debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, and criminal slavery were all practiced in various parts of Africa.[107] Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa. A model showing a cross-section of a typical 1700s European slave ship on the Middle Passage, National Museum of American History. When the Atlantic slave trade began, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M'bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique:     The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean.[108] The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo Empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire,[109] the kingdom of Dahomey,[110] and the Aro Confederacy.[111] It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.[112][113] Americas Further information: Atlantic slave trade; Encomienda; Mita (Inca); Institute for Trafficked, Exploited, and Missing Persons; Slavery in colonial Spanish America; Slavery in Brazil; and Slavery in the United States Slavery in Mexico can be traced back to the Aztecs.[114] Other Amerindians, such as the Inca of the Andes, the Tupinambá of Brazil, the Creek of Georgia, and the Comanche of Texas, also practiced slavery.[3] Slavery in Canada was practiced by First Nations and by European settlers.[115] Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California,[116] on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants were slaves.[117] Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s.[118] Diagrams of a slave ship and the alignment of captive slaves during the Atlantic slave trade. Slavery in America remains a contentious issue and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering a revolution, a civil war, and numerous rebellions. The countries that controlled the transatlantic slave market in terms of number of slaves shipped were: the United Kingdom, Portugal and France. Slaves embarked to America from 1450 until 1800 by country In order to establish itself as an American empire, Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World. The Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour. The Spanish colonies were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola.[119] It was argued by some contemporary writers to be intrinsically immoral.[120][121][122] Bartolomé de las Casas, a 16th-century Dominican friar and Spanish historian, participated in campaigns in Cuba (at Bayamo and Camagüey) and was present at the massacre of Hatuey; his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population. The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.[123] This era saw a growth in race-based slavery[124] England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle" was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates, though English slave-trading would not take off until the mid-17th century. Many whites who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[125] The transformation from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640 where a black man, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery, forcing him to serve his master, Hugh Gwyn, for the remainder of his life, for attempting to run away. This case was significant because it established the disparity between his sentence as a black man and that of the two white indentured servants who escaped with him (one described as Dutch and one as a Scotchman). It is the first documented case of a black man sentenced to lifetime servitude and is considered one of the first legal cases to make a racial distinction between black and white indentured servants.[126][127] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts and keep their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the 1655 case Johnson v. Parker, where the court ruled that a black man, Anthony Johnson of Virginia, was granted ownership of another black man, John Casor, as the result of a civil case.[128] This was the first instance of a judicial determination in the Thirteen Colonies holding that a person who had committed no crime could be held in servitude for life.[129][130] Spanish colonial America In 1519, Hernán Cortés brought the first modern slave to the area.[131] In the mid-16th century, the Spanish New Laws, prohibited slavery of the indigenous people, including the Aztecs. A labour shortage resulted. This led to the African slaves being imported, as they were not susceptible to smallpox. In exchange, many Africans were afforded the opportunity to buy their freedom, while eventually others were granted their freedom by their masters.[131] In Jamaica, the Spanish enslaved many of the Taino; some escaped, but most died from European diseases and overwork. The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves.[132] Spain practically did not trade in slaves until 1810 after the rebellions and independence of its American territories or viceroyalties. After the Napoleonic invasions, Spain had lost its industry and its American territories, except in Cuba and Puerto Rico, where the African slave trade to Cuba began on a massive scale from 1810 onwards. It was started by French planters exiled from the French lost colony Saint Domingue (Haiti) who settled in the eastern part of Cuba. In 1789 the Spanish Crown led an effort to reform slavery, as the demand for slave labour in Cuba was growing. The Crown issued a decree, Código Negro Español (Spanish Black Code), that specified food and clothing provisions, put limits on the number of work hours, limited punishments, required religious instruction, and protected marriages, forbidding the sale of young children away from their mothers. The British made other changes to the institution of slavery in Cuba. But planters often flouted the laws and protested against them, considering them a threat to their authority and an intrusion into their personal lives.[133] English and Dutch Caribbean Planting the sugar cane, British West Indies, 1823 Statue of Bussa, who led the largest slave rebellion in Barbadian history. In the early 17th century, the majority of the labour in Barbados was provided by European indentured servants, mainly English, Irish and Scottish, with African and native American slaves providing little of the workforce. The introduction of sugar cane in 1640 completely transformed society and the economy. Barbados eventually had one of the world's largest sugar industries.[134] The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and African slaves, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. In 1644, the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. By 1700, there were 15,000 free whites and 50,000 enslaved Africans. In Jamaica, although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000. The increased implementation of slave codes or black codes, which created differential treatment between Africans and the white workers and ruling planter class. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded. Funeral at slave plantation, Dutch Suriname. 1840–1850. The planters of the Dutch colony of Suriname relied heavily on African slaves to cultivate, harvest and process the commodity crops of coffee, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton plantations.[135] The Netherlands abolished slavery in Suriname in 1863. Many slaves escaped the plantations. With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English as Maroons, in French as Nèg'Marrons (literally meaning "brown negroes", that is "pale-skinned negroes"), and in Dutch as Marrons. The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis, as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka or Aukan, Kwinti, Aluku or Boni, and Matawai. The Maroons often raided plantations to recruit new members from the slaves and capture women, as well as to acquire weapons, food and supplies. They sometimes killed planters and their families in the raids.[136] The colonists also mounted armed campaigns against the Maroons, who generally escaped through the rain forest, which they knew much better than did the colonists. To end hostilities, in the 18th century the European colonial authorities signed several peace treaties with different tribes. They granted the Maroons sovereign status and trade rights in their inland territories, giving them autonomy. Brazil Public flogging of a slave in 19th-century Brazil, by Johann Moritz Rugendas Slave punishment by Jacques Étienne Arago, 1839. Slavery in Brazil began long before the first Portuguese settlement was established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another.[137] Later, Portuguese colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labour during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions called bandeiras. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. During the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. Nearly 5 million slaves were brought from Africa to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.[138] Until the early 1850s, most African slaves who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially in Luanda (in present-day Angola). Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the country with the largest population of people of African descent is Brazil.[139] Slave labour was the driving force behind the growth of the sugar economy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600 to 1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market. Transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the mining industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the population growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labour. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, and the rise of coffee in the 1830s further enticed expansion of the slave trade. Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. Forty percent of the total number of slaves brought to the Americas were sent to Brazil. For reference, the United States received 10 percent. Despite being abolished, there are still people working in slavery-like conditions in Brazil in the 21st century. Haiti Slavery in Haiti started with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population.[140] Following the indigenous Taíno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomeu de las Casas, and with the blessing of the Catholic church, who also wished to protect the indigenous people, began engaging in earnest in the use of African slaves. During the French colonial period beginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world. Saint-Domingue slave revolt in 1791 1804 Haiti massacre, carried out by Haitian soldiers, mostly former slaves, against the remaining French population Following the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Hispaniola was divided between France and Spain. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint-Domingue. The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten to one. The French-enacted Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[141] Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.[142] They had birth rates around 3 percent, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses, or committed infanticide, rather than allow their children to live within the bonds of slavery.[143][144] As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color: the mixed-race descendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights. Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans-Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti's archives and transferred to France's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015, these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 40,000 whites, 30,000 free coloureds and 450,000 slaves.[145] The Haitian Revolution of 1804, the only successful slave revolt in human history, precipitated the end of slavery in all French colonies, which came in 1848. United States A coffle of slaves being driven on foot from Staunton, Virginia to Tennessee in 1850. Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries, after it gained independence from the British and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies, at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry.[146] The United States became polarized over the issue of slavery, represented by the slave and free states divided by the Mason–Dixon line, which separated free Pennsylvania from slave Maryland and Delaware. Congress, during the Jefferson administration, prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) was not unusual.[147] Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labour demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation. Such laws proposed to Congress to continue the spread of slavery into newly ratified states include the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, times, and places. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave.[148] Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders. William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds (36 kg) of cotton per day, while women were required to pick 70 pounds (32 kg) per day; if any slave failed in their quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales.[149] A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping.[150] By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.[148] More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labour, and taken to the Deep South in a forced migration, splitting up many families. New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation.[151][152] In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in Democracy in America (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against black people increased as they were granted more rights. Others, like James Henry Hammond argued that slavery was a "positive good" stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement." The Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a political balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises. By 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Many white Southern Christians, including church ministers, attempted to justify their support for slavery as modified by Christian paternalism.[153] The largest denominations, the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South. Slaves on a Virginia plantation (The Old Plantation, c. 1790). When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, according to the 1860 U.S. census, roughly 400,000 individuals, representing 8% of all U.S. families, owned nearly 4,000,000 slaves.[154] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[155] The South was heavily invested in slavery. As such, upon Lincoln's election, seven states broke away to form the Confederate States of America. The first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, over the issue of slavery, the United States erupted into an all out Civil War, with slavery legally ceasing as an institution following the war in December 1865. In 1865, the United States ratified the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which banned slavery and involuntary servitude "except as punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted," providing a legal basis for forced labor to continue in the country. This led to the system of convict leasing, which affected primarily African Americans. The Prison Policy Initiative, an American criminal justice think tank, cites the 2020 US prison population as 2.3 million, and nearly all able-bodied inmates work in some fashion. In Texas, Georgia, Alabama and Arkansas, prisoners are not paid at all for their work. In other states, prisoners are paid between $0.12 and $1.15 per hour. Federal Prison Industries paid inmates an average of $0.90 per hour in 2017. Inmates who refuse to work may be indefinitely remanded into solitary confinement, or have family visitation revoked. From 2010 to 2015 and again in 2016 and in 2018, some prisoners in the US refused to work, protesting for better pay, better conditions, and for the end of forced labor. Strike leaders were punished with indefinite solitary confinement. Forced prison labor occurs in both government-run prisons and private prisons. CoreCivic and GEO Group constitute half the market share of private prisons, and they made a combined revenue of $3.5 billion in 2015. The value of all labor by inmates in the United States is estimated to be in the billions. In California, 2,500 incarcerated workers fought wildfires for only $1 per hour through the CDCR's Conservation Camp Program, which saves the state as much as $100 million a year.[citation needed] Asia-Pacific See also: History of slavery in Asia East Asia A contract from the Tang dynasty recording the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five coins. See also: Slavery in China Slavery existed in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty.[156] Slavery was employed largely by governments as a means of maintaining a public labour force.[157][158] Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper.[159] According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), Mongolian slaves were owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty.[160][161] Slavery has taken various forms throughout China's history. It was reportedly abolished as a legally recognized institution, including in a 1909 law[162][163] fully enacted in 1910,[164] although the practice continued until at least 1949.[159] The Tang dynasty purchased Western slaves from the Radhanite Jews.[165] Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, central Asia, and northern India.[166][167] The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Guizhou. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and "black skinned" peoples (who were either Austronesian Negritos of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, or Africans, or both) were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty.[168] In the 17th century Qing Dynasty, there was a hereditarily servile people called Booi Aha (Manchu: booi niyalma; Chinese transliteration: 包衣阿哈), which is a Manchu word literally translated as "household person" and sometimes rendered as "nucai." The Manchu was establishing close personal and paternalist relationship between masters and their slaves, as Nurhachi said, "The Master should love the slaves and eat the same food as him".[169] However, booi aha "did not correspond exactly to the Chinese category of "bond-servant slave" (Chinese:奴僕); instead, it was a relationship of personal dependency on a master which in theory guaranteed close personal relationships and equal treatment, even though many western scholars would directly translate "booi" as "bond-servant" (some of the "booi" even had their own servant).[159] Chinese Muslim (Tungans) Sufis who were charged with practicing xiejiao (heterodox religion), were punished by exile to Xinjiang and being sold as a slave to other Muslims, such as the Sufi begs.[170] Han Chinese who committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice was administered by Qing law.[171] Most Chinese in Altishahr were exile slaves to Turkestani Begs.[172] While free Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chinese slaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with the East Turkestani women that were serious in nature.[173] Kisaeng, women from outcast or slave families who were trained to provide entertainment, conversation, and sexual services to men of the upper class. Slavery in Korea existed since before the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, in the first century BCE.[174] Slavery has been described as "very important in medieval Korea, probably more important than in any other East Asian country, but by the 16th century, population growth was making [it] unnecessary".[175] Slavery went into decline around the 10th century but came back in the late Goryeo period when Korea also experienced multiple slave rebellions.[174] In the Joseon period of Korea, members of the slave class were known as nobi. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen (i.e., the middle and common classes) other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, and legal and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves",[176] while some scholars describe them as serfs.[177][178] The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the total, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[174] In 1801, the majority of government nobi were emancipated,[179] and by 1858, the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the Korean population.[180] During the Joseon period, the nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[174] The nobi system declined beginning in the 18th century.[181] Since the outset of the Joseon dynasty and especially beginning in the 17th century, there was harsh criticism among prominent thinkers in Korea about the nobi system. Even within the Joseon government, there were indications of a shift in attitude toward the nobi.[182] King Yeongjo implemented a policy of gradual emancipation in 1775,[175] and he and his successor King Jeongjo made many proposals and developments that lessened the burden on nobi, which led to the emancipation of the vast majority of government nobi in 1801.[182] In addition, population growth,[175] numerous escaped slaves,[174] growing commercialization of agriculture, and the rise of the independent small farmer class contributed to the decline in the number of nobi to about 1.5% of the total population by 1858.[180] The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87,[174][180] and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894.[174][183] However, slavery did not completely disappear in Korea until 1930, during Imperial Japanese rule. During the Imperial Japanese occupation of Korea around World War II, some Koreans were used in forced labour by the Imperial Japanese, in conditions which have been compared to slavery.[174][184] These included women forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II, known as "comfort women".[174][184] After the Portuguese first made contact with Japan in 1543, slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.[185][186] Many documents mention the slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church[187] in 1555. Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to Asian lascar and African crew members, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[188] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where they were enslaved to Portuguese or became slaves to other slaves.[189][190] Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought back to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98).[191][192] Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan.[193][194] Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were black.[195][196][197][198][199] The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner.[200] The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese, Japanese and Indian slaves.[201][197] King Sebastian of Portugal feared rampant slavery was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[202] Hideyoshi was so disgusted that his own Japanese people were being sold en masse into slavery on Kyushu, that he wrote a letter to Jesuit Vice-Provincial Gaspar Coelho on July 24, 1587, to demand the Portuguese, Siamese (Thai), and Cambodians stop purchasing and enslaving Japanese and return Japanese slaves who ended up as far as India.[203][204][205] Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result.[206][self-published source][207] In 1595, a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves.[208] South Asia Slavery in India was widespread by the 6th century BC, and perhaps even as far back as the Vedic period.[209] Slavery intensified during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th-century.[210] Slavery existed in Portuguese India after the 16th century. The Dutch, too, largely dealt in Abyssian slaves, known in India as Habshis or Sheedes.[211] Arakan/Bengal, Malabar, and Coromandel remained the largest sources of forced labour until the 1660s. Between 1626 and 1662, the Dutch exported on an average 150–400 slaves annually from the Arakan-Bengal coast. During the first 30 years of Batavia's existence, Indian and Arakanese slaves provided the main labour force of the Dutch East India Company, Asian headquarters. An increase in Coromandel slaves occurred during a famine following the revolt of the Nayaka Indian rulers of South India (Tanjavur, Senji, and Madurai) against Bijapur overlordship (1645) and the subsequent devastation of the Tanjavur countryside by the Bijapur army. Reportedly, more than 150,000 people were taken by the invading Deccani Muslim armies to Bijapur and Golconda. In 1646, 2,118 slaves were exported to Batavia, the overwhelming majority from southern Coromandel. Some slaves were also acquired further south at Tondi, Adirampatnam, and Kayalpatnam. Another increase in slaving took place between 1659 and 1661 from Tanjavur as a result of a series of successive Bijapuri raids. At Nagapatnam, Pulicat, and elsewhere, the company purchased 8,000–10,000 slaves, the bulk of whom were sent to Ceylon, while a small portion were exported to Batavia and Malacca. Finally, following a long drought in Madurai and southern Coromandel, in 1673, which intensified the prolonged Madurai-Maratha struggle over Tanjavur and punitive fiscal practices, thousands of people from Tanjavur, mostly children, were sold into slavery and exported by Asian traders from Nagapattinam to Aceh, Johor, and other slave markets. In September 1687, 665 slaves were exported by the English from Fort St. George, Madras. And, in 1694–96, when warfare once more ravaged South India, a total of 3,859 slaves were imported from Coromandel by private individuals into Ceylon.[212][213][214][215] The volume of the total Dutch Indian Ocean slave trade has been estimated to be about 15–30% of the Atlantic slave trade, slightly smaller than the trans-Saharan slave trade, and one-and-a-half to three times the size of the Swahili and Red Sea coast and the Dutch West India Company slave trades.[216] According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. About 15% of the population of Malabar were slaves. Slavery was legally abolished in the possessions of the East India Company by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.[3] South East Asia The hill tribe people in Indochina were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians".[217] A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[217] The census, taken in 1879, showed that 6% of the population in the Malay sultanate of Perak were slaves.[218] Enslaved people made up about two-thirds of the population in part of North Borneo in the 1880s.[218] Oceania Slaves (he mōkai) had a recognised social role in traditional Māori society in New Zealand.[219] Blackbirding occurred on islands in the Pacific Ocean and Australia, especially in the 19th century. Europe Ancient Greece and Rome Main articles: Slavery in ancient Greece and Slavery in ancient Rome Ishmaelites purchase Joseph, by Schnorr von Carolsfeld, 1860 Records of slavery in Ancient Greece begin with Mycenaean Greece. Classical Athens had the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC.[220] As the Roman Republic expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, across Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labour, as well as for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts (see Roman Servile Wars); the Third Servile War was led by Spartacus. Slave Market in Ancient Rome, by Jean-Léon Gérôme By the late Republican era, slavery had become an economic pillar of Roman wealth, as well as Roman society.[221] It is estimated that 25% or more of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved, although the actual percentage is debated by scholars and varied from region to region.[222][223] Slaves represented 15–25% of Italy's population,[224] mostly war captives,[224] especially from Gaul[225] and Epirus. Estimates of the number of slaves in the Roman Empire suggest that the majority were scattered throughout the provinces outside of Italy.[224] Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians.[226] Foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy were estimated to have peaked at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent. Jewish slaves never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher death rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes subjected to mass expulsions.[227] The average recorded age at death for the slaves in Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[228] Medieval Europe Main articles: Barbary slave trade and Slavery in the Byzantine Empire Adalbert of Prague pleads with Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia for the release of slaves Slavery in early medieval Europe was so common that the Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it, or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, as for example at the Council of Koblenz (922), the Council of London (1102) (which aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves to Ireland)[229] and the Council of Armagh (1171). Serfdom, on the contrary, was widely accepted. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting the kings of Spain and Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens (Muslims), pagans and any other unbelievers" to perpetual slavery, legitimizing the slave trade as a result of war.[230] The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. Large-scale trading in slaves was mainly confined to the South and East of early medieval Europe: the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, while pagan Central and Eastern Europe (along with the Caucasus and Tartary) were important sources. Viking, Arab, Greek, and Radhanite Jewish merchants were all involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages.[231][232][233] The trade in European slaves reached a peak in the 10th century following the Zanj Rebellion which dampened the use of African slaves in the Arab world.[234][235] In Britain, slavery continued to be practiced following the fall of Rome, while sections of Æthelstan's and Hywel the Good's laws dealt with slaves in medieval England and medieval Wales respectively.[236][237] The trade particularly picked up after the Viking invasions, with major markets at Chester[238] and Bristol[239] supplied by Danish, Mercian, and Welsh raiding of one another's borderlands. At the time of the Domesday Book, nearly 10% of the English population were slaves.[240] William the Conqueror introduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas.[241] According to historian John Gillingham, by 1200 slavery in the British Isles was non-existent.[242] Slavery had never been authorized by statute within England and Wales, and in 1772, in the case Somerset v Stewart, Lord Mansfield declared that it was also unsupported within England by the common law. The slave trade was abolished by the Slave Trade Act 1807, although slavery remained legal in possessions outside Europe until the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 and the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.[243] However, when England began to have colonies in the Americas, and particularly from the 1640s, African slaves began to make their appearance in England and remained a presence until the eighteenth century. In Scotland, slaves continued to be sold as chattels until late in the eighteenth century (on the second May 1722, an advertisement appeared in the Edinburgh Evening Courant, announcing that a stolen slave had been found, who would be sold to pay expenses, unless claimed within two weeks).[244] For nearly two hundred years in the history of coal mining in Scotland, miners were bonded to their "maisters" by a 1606 Act "Anent Coalyers and Salters". The Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775 stated that "many colliers and salters are in a state of slavery and bondage" and announced emancipation; those starting work after July 1, 1775, would not become slaves, while those already in a state of slavery could, after 7 or 10 years depending on their age, apply for a decree of the Sheriff's Court granting their freedom. Few could afford this, until a further law in 1799 established their freedom and made this slavery and bondage illegal.[244][245] A British captain witnessing the miseries of slaves in Ottoman Algeria, 1815 The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of slaves into the Islamic world.[246] To staff its bureaucracy, the Ottoman Empire established a janissary system which seized hundreds of thousands of Christian boys through the devşirme system. They were well cared for but were legally slaves owned by the government and were not allowed to marry. They were never bought or sold. The empire gave them significant administrative and military roles. The system began about 1365; there were 135,000 janissaries in 1826, when the system ended.[247] After the Battle of Lepanto, 12,000 Christian galley slaves were recaptured and freed from the Ottoman fleet.[248] Eastern Europe suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves for selling them to Ottomans as jasyr.[249] Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded into Poland–Lithuania between 1474 and 1569.[250] Slavic and African slaves in Córdoba, illustration from Cantigas de Santa Maria, 13th Century Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant Muslim invasion of the predominantly Christian area. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal, in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[251] From the 11th to the 19th century, North African Barbary Pirates engaged in raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco.[252] The maritime town of Lagos was the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves – the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.[253][254] In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania.[254] By 1552, black African slaves made up 10% of the population of Lisbon.[255][256] In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade, and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – especially Brazil.[254] In the 15th century one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.[257] Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate (a Muslim Tatar state) maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East.[249] The slaves were captured in southern Russia, Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Circassia by Tatar horsemen[258] and sold in the Crimean port of Kaffa.[259] About 2 million mostly Christian slaves were exported over the 16th and 17th centuries[260] until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783.[261] Crimean Tatar raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.[262] In Kievan Rus and Muscovy, slaves were usually classified as kholops. According to David P. Forsythe, "In 1649 up to three-quarters of Muscovy's peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters."[263] Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.[264] Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom. In Scandinavia, thralldom was abolished in the mid-14th century.[265] World War II Prisoners forced to work on the Buchenwald–Weimar rail line, 1943 Main article: Forced labour under German rule during World War II During the Second World War, Nazi Germany effectively enslaved about 12 million people, both those considered undesirable and citizens of conquered countries, with the avowed intention of treating these Untermenschen (sub-humans) as a permanent slave-class of inferior beings who could be worked until they died, and who possessed neither the rights nor the legal status of members of the Aryan race.[266] Besides Jews, the harshest deportation and forced labour policies were applied to the populations of Poland,[267] Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. By the end of the war, half of Belarus' population had been killed or deported.[268][269] Communist states Main article: Gulag Workers being forced to haul rocks up a hill in a Gulag Between 1930 and 1960, the Soviet Union created a system of, according to Anne Applebaum and the "perspective of the Kremlin", slave labor camps called the Gulag (Russian: ГУЛаг, romanized: GULag).[270] Prisoners in these camps were worked to death by a combination of extreme production quotas, physical and psychological brutality, hunger, lack of medical care, and the harsh environment. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, provided firsthand testimony about the camps with the publication of The Gulag Archipelago, after which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.[271][272] Fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Hundreds of thousands of people, possibly millions, died as a direct result of forced labour under the Soviets.[273] Golfo Alexopoulos suggests comparing labor in the Gulag with "other forms of slave labor" and notes its "violence of human exploitation" in Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag:[274]     Stalin's Gulag was, in many ways, less a concentration camp than a forced labor camp and less a prison system than a system of slavery. The image of the slave appears often in Gulag memoir literature. As Varlam Shalamov wrote: "Hungry and exhausted, we leaned into a horse collar, raising blood blisters on our chests and pulling a stone-filled cart up the slanted mine floor. The collar was the same device used long ago by the ancient Egyptians." Thoughtful and rigorous historical comparisons of Soviet forced labor and other forms of slave labor would be worthy of scholarly attention, in my view. For as in the case of global slavery, the Gulag found legitimacy in an elaborate narrative of difference that involved the presumption of dangerousness and guilt. This ideology of difference and the violence of human exploitation have left lasting legacies in contemporary Russia. Historian Anne Applebaum writes in the introduction of her book that the word GULAG has come to represent "the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties":[275]     The word "GULAG" is an acronym for Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei, or Main Camp Administration, the institution which ran the Soviet camps. But over time, the word has also come to signify the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps. Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that Alexander Solzhenitsyn once called "our meat grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths. Applebaum's introduction has been criticized by Gulag researcher Wilson Bell,[276] stating that her book "is, aside from the introduction, a well-done overview of the Gulag, but it did not offer an interpretative framework much beyond Solzhenitsyn's paradigms".[277] Middle East See also: Slavery in ancient Egypt and Slavery in the Ottoman Empire In the earliest known records, slavery is treated as an established institution. The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), for example, prescribed death for anyone who helped a slave escape or who sheltered a fugitive.[278] The Bible mentions slavery as an established institution.[3] Slavery existed in Pharaonic Egypt, but studying it is complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone.[279][280] The three apparent types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labour, and forced labour.[281][282][283] 19th-century engraving depicting an Arab slave-trading caravan transporting black African slaves across the Sahara Desert. As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000.[284] Along with Yemen, the Saudis abolished slavery in 1962.[285] Historically, slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj),[286] the Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[287] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Slavs [Saqaliba]).[288] Above: Ottoman wars saw Europeans dragged to that empire In Constantinople, about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.[71] The city was a major centre of the slave trade in the 15th and later centuries. Slaves were provided by Tatar raids on Slavic villages[289] but also by conquest and the suppression of rebellions, in the aftermath of which entire populations were sometimes enslaved and sold across the Empire, reducing the risk of future rebellion. The Ottomans also purchased slaves from traders who brought slaves into the Empire from Europe and Africa. It has been estimated that some 200,000 slaves – mainly Circassians – were imported into the Ottoman Empire between 1800 and 1909.[218] In 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[290] German orientalist, Gustaf Dalman, reported seeing slaves in Muslim houses in Aleppo, belonging to Ottoman Syria, in 1899, and that boys could be bought as slaves in Damascus and Cairo in as late as 1909.[291] Persian slave in the Khanate of Khiva, 19th century A slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asian khanate of Khiva.[292] In the early 1840s, the population of the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khiva included about 900,000 slaves.[218] Contemporary slavery See also: Contemporary slavery, Slavery in contemporary Africa, Child slavery, Trafficking of children, Illegal immigration § Slavery, and Slavery in the 21st century Modern incidence of slavery, as a percentage of the population, by country. Even though slavery is now outlawed in every country, the number of slaves today is estimated as between 12 million and 29.8 million.[293][294][295] According to a broad definition of slavery, there were 27 million people in slavery in 1999, spread all over the world.[296] In 2005, the International Labour Organization provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers.[297] Siddharth Kara has also provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into three categories: bonded labour/debt bondage (18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million).[62] Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009. Tuareg society is traditionally hierarchical, ranging from nobles, through vassals, to dark-skinned slaves.[298] According to a 2003 report by Human Rights Watch, an estimated 15 million children in debt bondage in India work in slavery-like conditions to pay off their family's debts.[299][300] Slavoj Žižek asserts that new forms of contemporary slavery have been created in the post-Cold War era of global capitalism, including migrant workers deprived of basic civil rights on the Arabian Peninsula, the total control of workers in Asian sweatshops and the use of forced labor in the exploitation of natural resources in Central Africa.[301] Distribution In June 2013, U.S. State Department released a report on slavery. It placed Russia, China, and Uzbekistan in the worst offenders category. Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Syria, and Zimbabwe were at the lowest level. The list also included Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among a total of 21 countries.[302][303] In Kuwait, there are more than 600,000 migrant domestic workers who are vulnerable to forced labor and legally tied to their employers, who often illegally take their passports.[304] In 2019, online slave markets on apps such as Instagram were uncovered.[305] In the preparations for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, thousands of Nepalese, the largest group of labourers, faced slavery in the form of denial of wages, confiscation of documents, and inability to leave the workplace.[306] In 2016, the United Nations gave Qatar 12 months to end migrant worker slavery or face investigation.[307] The Walk Free Foundation reported in 2018 that slavery in wealthy Western societies is much more prevalent than previously known, in particular the United States and Great Britain, which have 403,000 (one in 800) and 136,000 slaves respectively. Andrew Forrest, founder of the organization, said that "The United States is one of the most advanced countries in the world yet has more than 400,000 modern slaves working under forced labour conditions."[308] An estimated 40.3 million are enslaved globally, with North Korea having the most slaves at 2.6 million (one in 10). Of the estimated 40.3 million people in contemporary slavery, 71% are women and 29% are men. The report found of the 40.3 million in modern slavery, 15.4 million are in forced marriages and 24.9 million are in forced labor.[309] The foundation defines contemporary slavery as "situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power, or deception."[310] China See also: Xinjiang internment camps The Chinese government has a history of imprisoning citizens for political reasons. Article 73 of China's Criminal Procedure Law was adopted in 2012 and allow the authorities to detain people for reasons of "state security" or "terrorism". In this regard, detainees can be held for as long as six months in "designated locations" such as secret prisons.[311] In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority for forced labour, inside sweat shops. According to a report published then by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs were forcibly removed from the region of Xinjiang and used for forced labour in at least twenty-seven corporate factories.[312] According to the Business and Human Rights resource center, corporations such as Abercrombie & Fitch, Adidas, Amazon, Apple, BMW, Fila, Gap, H&M, Inditex, Marks & Spencer, Nike, North Face, Puma, PVH, Samsung, and UNIQLO each have each sourced products from these factories prior to the publication of the ASPI report.[313] Libya During the Second Libyan Civil War, Libyans started capturing Sub-Saharan African migrants trying to get to Europe through Libya and selling them on slave markets or holding them hostage for ransom[314] Women are often raped, used as sex slaves, or sold to brothels.[315][316][317] Child migrants suffer from abuse and child rape in Libya.[318][319] Mauritania In Mauritania, the last country to abolish slavery (in 1981), it is estimated that 20% of its population of 3 million people are enslaved as bonded labourers.[320][321][322] Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007.[323] However, although slavery, as a practice, was legally banned in 1981, it was not a crime to own a slave until 2007.[324] Although many slaves have escaped or have been freed since 2007, as of 2012, only one slave owner had been sentenced to serve time in prison.[325] North Korea See also: Human rights in North Korea North Korea's human rights record is often considered to be the worst in the world and has been globally condemned, with the United Nations, the European Union and groups such as Human Rights Watch all critical of the country's record. Forms of torture, forced labour, and abuses are all widespread. Most international human rights organizations consider North Korea to have no contemporary parallel[326] with respect to violations of liberty.[327][328][329][330] Economics While American slaves in 1809 were sold for around $40,000 (in inflation adjusted dollars), a slave nowadays can be bought for just $90, making replacement more economical than providing long-term care.[331] Slavery is a multibillion-dollar industry with estimates of up to $35 billion generated annually.[332] Trafficking A world map showing countries by prevalence of female trafficking Victims of human trafficking are typically recruited through deceit or trickery (such as a false job offer, false migration offer, or false marriage offer), sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a "debt slavery" situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs to control their victims.[333] "Annually, according to U.S. government-sponsored research completed in 2006, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80% of transnational victims are women and girls, and up to 50% are minors, reports the U.S. State Department in a 2008 study.[334] While the majority of trafficking victims are women who are forced into prostitution (in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labour.[335] Because of the illegal nature of human trafficking, its extent is unknown. A U.S. government report, published in 2005, estimates that about 700,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally.[335] Another research effort revealed that roughly 1.5 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year, of which about 500,000 are sex trafficking victims.[62] Abolitionism Main article: Abolitionism For a chronological guide, see Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom.     vte Slave Trade suppression A painting of the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention at Exeter Hall in London.[336] Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout recorded human history – as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. In antiquity Chinese Emperor Wang Mang abolished slavery in 17 CE but the ban was overturned after his assassination. Ashoka, who ruled the Maurya Empire in the Indian subcontinent from 269 to 232 BCE, abolished the slave trade but not slavery.[337] The Qin dynasty, which ruled China from 221 to 206 BC, abolished slavery and discouraged serfdom. However, many of its laws were overturned when the dynasty was overthrown.[338] Slavery was again abolished by Wang Mang in China in 17 CE but was reinstituted after his assassination.[339] Americas The Spanish colonization of the Americas sparked a discussion about the right to enslave Native Americans. A prominent critic of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies was the Spanish missionary and bishop, Bartolomé de las Casas, who was "the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slavery there."[340] One of the first protests against slavery came from German and Dutch Quakers in Pennsylvania in 1688.[citation needed] In 1777, Vermont, at the time an independent nation, became the first portion of what would become the United States to abolish slavery.[citation needed] In the United States, all of the northern states had abolished slavery by 1804, with New Jersey being the last to act.[341] Abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves went into effect on January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited,[342] but not the internal slave trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted outside the northern states; most of those slaves already in the U.S. were legally emancipated only in 1863. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad. Violent clashes between anti-slavery and pro-slavery Americans included Bleeding Kansas, a series of political and armed disputes in 1854–1858 as to whether Kansas would join the United States as a slave or free state. By 1860, the total number of slaves reached almost four million, and the American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States.[343] In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited most forms of slavery throughout the country. Many of the freed slaves became sharecroppers and indentured servants. In this manner, some became tied to the very parcel of land into which they had been born a slave having little freedom or economic opportunity because of Jim Crow laws which perpetuated discrimination, limited education, promoted persecution without due process and resulted in continued poverty. Fear of reprisals such as unjust incarcerations and lynchings deterred upward mobility further. Olaudah Equiano, His autobiography, published in 1789, helped in the creation of the Slave Trade Act 1807 which ended the African slave trade for Britain and its colonies. Joseph Jenkins Roberts, born in Virginia, was the first president of Liberia, which was founded in 1822 for freed American slaves. Europe France abolished slavery in 1794 during the Revolution,[344] but it was restored in 1802 under Napoleon.[345] It has been asserted that, before the Revolution, slavery was illegal in metropolitan France (as opposed to its colonies),[346] but this has been refuted.[347] One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British Judge Lord Mansfield, whose opinion in Somersett's Case was widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions could not be enforced in England.[348] Sons of Africa was a late 18th-century British group that campaigned to end slavery. Its members were Africans in London, freed slaves who included Ottobah Cugoano, Olaudah Equiano and other leading members of London's black community. It was closely connected to the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, a non-denominational group founded in 1787, whose members included Thomas Clarkson. British Member of Parliament William Wilberforce led the anti-slavery movement in the United Kingdom, although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Clarkson. Wilberforce was urged by his close friend, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, to make the issue his own and was also given support by reformed Evangelical John Newton. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 25, 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire,[349] Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in the British Empire, which he lived to see in the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched to encouraging other countries to follow suit, notably France and the British colonies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[350] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[351] Worldwide In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge, which campaigned to outlaw slavery in other countries.[352] There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the British Anti-Slavery Society. In the 1860s, David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular. In 1905, the French abolished indigenous slavery in most of French West Africa.[353] On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:     No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.[354] In 2014, for the first time in history, major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020.[355] The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī, Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.)[355] Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to eliminate slavery.[citation needed] UNESCO has been working to break the silence surrounding the memory of slavery since 1994, through the The Slave Route Project.[356] Apologies On May 21, 2001, the National Assembly of France passed the Taubira law, recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and the Atlantic slave trade was performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals.[357]     There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.[358] Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade. By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade.[359] In 1999, President Mathieu Kérékou of Benin issued a national apology for the central role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade.[109] Luc Gnacadja, minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it."[360] Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of the Slave Coast bordering the Bight of Benin.[360] President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana also apologized for his country's involvement in the slave trade.[109] The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action plan. In 2007, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a formal apology for Great Britain's involvement in slavery.[361] On February 25, 2007, the Commonwealth of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown.[362] On August 24, 2007, Mayor of London Ken Livingstone issued a public apology for London's role in Atlantic slave trade, which took place at an event commemorating the 200th anniversary of the British slave trade's abolition. In his speech, Livingstone described the slave trade as "the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human... We live with the consequences today."[363] City officials in Liverpool, which was a large slave trading port, apologized in 1999.[364] On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[365] In June 2009, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama, the nation's first president of African descent.[366] Some of President Obama's ancestors may have been slave owners.[367] In 2010, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way."[368] Reparations Main article: Reparations for slavery There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves or for their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relatives lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile legal process. Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired. In June 2023, The Brattle Group presented a report at an event at the University of the West Indies in which reparations were estimated, for harms both during and after the period of transatlantic chattel slavery, at over 100 trillion dollars.[369][370] Media Further information: List of films featuring slavery Poster for Spartacus Film has been the most influential medium in the presentation of the history of slavery to the general public around the world.[371] The American film industry has had a complex relationship with slavery and until recent decades often avoided the topic. Films such as The Birth of a Nation (1915)[372] and Gone with the Wind (1939) became controversial because they gave a favourable depiction. In 1940 The Santa Fe Trail gave a liberal but ambiguous interpretation of John Brown's attacks on slavery.[373] Song of the South gave a favorable outlook on slavery in the United States in 1946. The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s made defiant slaves into heroes.[374] The question of slavery in American memory necessarily involves its depictions in feature films.[375] Most Hollywood films used American settings, although Spartacus (1960), dealt with an actual revolt in the Roman Empire known as the Third Servile War. The revolt failed, and all the rebels were executed, but their spirit lived on according to the film.[376] Spartacus stays surprisingly close to the historical record.[377] The Last Supper (La última cena in Spanish) was a 1976 film directed by Cuban Tomás Gutiérrez Alea about the teaching of Christianity to slaves in Cuba, and emphasizes the role of ritual and revolt. Burn! takes place on the imaginary Portuguese island of Queimada (where the locals speak Spanish) and it merges historical events that took place in Brazil, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and elsewhere. Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom.[378][376] Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery.[379] Year     Title[380]     Film genre     Director     Actor     Country     Book     Author 1915     The Birth of a Nation     Historical drama / epic     D. W. Griffith     Lillian Gish      United States     The Clansman     Thomas Dixon, Jr. 1960     Spartacus     Historical drama / epic     Stanley Kubrick     Kirk Douglas      United States            1967     Cervantes     Historical drama     Vincent Sherman     Horst Buchholz      Spain            1968     Angélique and the Sultan     Drama     Bernard Borderie            France     Angélique in Barbary     Anne Golon 1969     Queimada (Burn!)     Drama     Gillo Pontecorvo     Marlon Brando      Italy            1975     Mandingo     Drama, Exploitation film     Richard Fleischer     Ken Norton      United States     Mandingo     Kyle Onstott 1976     Escrava Isaura (TV series)     Telenovela     Herval Rossano            Brazil     A Escrava Isaura     Bernardo Guimarães 1977     Alex Haley's Roots (TV series)     Historical drama     Chomsky, Erman, Greene and Moses            United States     Roots: The Saga of an American Family     Alex Haley 1987     Cobra Verde     Drama     Werner Herzog     Klaus Kinski      Germany     The Viceroy of Ouidah     Bruce Chatwin 1993     Alex Haley's Queen (TV series)     Historical drama     John Erman     Halle Berry      United States     Queen: The Story of an American Family     Alex Haley 1997     Amistad     Drama     Steven Spielberg     Djimon Hounsou      United States            1998     Beloved     Drama     Jonathan Demme     Oprah Winfrey      United States           Toni Morrison 2000     Gladiator     Historical epic     Ridley Scott     Russell Crowe      United Kingdom,  United States            2007     El Cimarrón     Historical drama     Iván Dariel Ortíz     Pedro Telemaco      Puerto Rico      2006     Amazing Grace     Historical drama     Michael Apted            United Kingdom,  United States            2007     Trade     Thriller     Marco Kreuzpaintner            Germany,  United States            2010     The Slave Hunters     Historical drama     Kwak Jung-hwan            South Korea      2011     Muhteşem Yüzyıl (TV series)     Historical soap opera     The Taylan Brothers     Halit Ergenç      Turkey            2012     Lincoln     Historical drama / epic     Steven Spielberg     Daniel Day-Lewis      United States         Doris Kearns Goodwin 2012     The Horde     Drama     Andrei Proshkin            Russia         Yuri Arabov 2012     500 Years Later     Documentary     Owen 'Alik Shahadah            United Kingdom,  United States            2012     Django Unchained     Western     Quentin Tarantino     Jamie Foxx      United States            2013     12 Years a Slave     Historical drama     Steve McQueen     Chiwetel Ejiofor      United Kingdom,  United States     Twelve Years a Slave     Solomon Northup 2013     Belle     Historical drama     Amma Asante     Gugu Mbatha-Raw      United Kingdom         Misan Sagay 2016     The Birth of a Nation     Historical drama     Nate Parker     Nate Parker      Canada,  United States          See also     Bodmin manumissions, the names and details of slaves freed in Medieval Bodmin     International Day for the Abolition of Slavery     International Slavery Museum     Involuntary servitude     List of slaves     List of slave owners     Mukataba     Slave rebellion     Subjugate     Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery     Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation References Allain, Jean (2012). 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Retrieved September 29, 2015. Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (December 7, 2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. "Slavery and forced labour in Ancient China and the Ancient Mediterranean". University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 6, 2019. Ober, Josiah; Scheidel, Walter; Shaw, Brent D.; Sanclemente, Donna (April 18, 2007). "Toward Open Access in Ancient Studies: The Princeton-Stanford Working Papers in Classics". Hesperia. 76 (1): 229–242. doi:10.2972/hesp.76.1.229. ISSN 0018-098X. S2CID 145709968. Rodriguez 1997, pp. 146–147. 杉山正明《忽必烈的挑战》,社会科学文献出版社,2013年,第44–46頁 船田善之《色目人与元代制度、社会 – 重新探讨蒙古、色目、汉人、南人划分的位置》,〈蒙古学信息〉2003年第2期 Williams, R. Owen (November 2006). Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition [Two Volumes]. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-01524-3. Zhao, Gang (1986). Man and Land in Chinese History: An Economic Analysis. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1271-2. Huang, Philip C. (2001). Code, Custom, and Legal Practice in China: The Qing and the Republic Compared. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4111-8. Hirschman, Elizabeth Caldwell; Yates, Donald N. (2014). The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History. McFarland. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-7864-7684-8. Retrieved February 14, 2017. "Kao-li maid-servant". Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tōyō Bunko. Tokyo: Tōyō Bunko (2): 63. 1928. ISSN 0082-562X. Lee (1997), p. 49; Davis (1988), p. 51; Salisbury (2004), p. 316 Schafer, Edward H. (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2. Granet, Marcel (2013) [1930], "The History of Civilization", Chinese Civilization, London: Routledge, pp. 500–503, doi:10.4324/9781315005508-24, ISBN 978-1-315-00550-8 Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. 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ISBN 978-89-7141-441-5. Retrieved February 15, 2017. "Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed." Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011). Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives. SUNY Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4384-3777-4. Retrieved February 14, 2017. Campbell 2004, pp. 162–163. Campbell 2004, p. 157. Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011). Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives. SUNY Press. pp. 140–41. ISBN 978-1-4384-3777-4. Retrieved February 14, 2017. Korean National Commission for UNESCO (2004). Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments. Hollym. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-56591-177-2. Tierney, Helen (1999). Women's Studies Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-313-31071-3. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Retrieved February 13, 2021. Robert Gellately; Ben Kiernan, eds. (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-521-52750-7. Retrieved February 2, 2014. "Hideyoshi korean slaves guns silk." McCormack, Gavan (2001). Reflections on Modern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept of "genocide". Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. Harvard University, Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. p. 18. Lidin, Olof G. (2002). Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europe in Japan. Routledge. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-135-78871-1. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Stanley, Amy (2012). Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan. Vol. 21 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes. Matthew H. Sommer. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95238-6. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Spence, Jonathan D. (1985). The memory palace of Matteo Ricci (illustrated, reprint ed.). Penguin Books. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-14-008098-8. Retrieved May 5, 2012. "countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese" Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. "Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares." Pinto, Jeanette (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Bombay: Himalaya Pub. House. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-7040-587-0. "ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working' ... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks." Boxer (1968), p. 225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ...". Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras [China in Brazil: Influences, Marks, Echoes and Chinese Survivals in Brazilian Society and Art] (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Finkelman, Paul; Miller, Joseph Calder (1998). Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery. Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference US. p. 737. ISBN 978-0-02-864781-4. OCLC 39655102. de Sande (2012); Saunders (1982), p. 168; Boxer (1968), p. 225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ...". Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Slavery in Medieval Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. JSTOR 25066328. Daigaku, Jōchi (2004). Monumenta Nipponica. Sophia University. p. 465. Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2013). Religion in Japanese History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-231-51509-2. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Calman, Donald (2013). Nature and Origins of Japanese Imperialism. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-134-91843-0. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4691-0244-3.[self-published source] Moran, J.F. (2012). Japanese and the Jesuits. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-88112-3. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-84718-111-4. footnote 2: (...) While it is likely that the institution of slavery existed in India during the Vedic period, the association of the Vedic 'Dasa' with 'slaves' is problematic and likely to have been a later development. Levi, Scott C. (November 2002). "Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 12 (3): 277–288. doi:10.1017/S1356186302000329. JSTOR 25188289. S2CID 155047611. "Sources such as the Arthasastra, the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata demonstrate that institutionalized slavery was well established in India by beginning of the common era" "Windows – Slice of history". The Tribune. Subrahmanyam (1997), pp. 201–253; Prakash (1998), p. 5; Prakash (1985); Richards (2012); Raychaudhuri & Habib (1982); Arasaratnam (1995); Vink (1998); Arasaratnam (1996); Love (1913) V.B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760 (Princeton, N.J., 1984); G.D. Winius, "The 'Shadow Empire' of Goa in the Bay of Bengal," Itinerario 7, no. 2 (1983); D.G.E. Hall, "Studies in Dutch relations with Arakan," Journal of the Burma Research Society 26, no. 1 (1936):; D.G.E. Hall, "The Daghregister of Batavia and Dutch Trade with Burma in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of the Burma Research Society 29, no. 2 (1939) VOC 1479, OBP 1691, fls. 611r–627v, Specificatie van Allerhande Koopmansz. tot Tuticurin, Manaapar en Alvatt.rij Ingekocht, 1670/71–1689/90; W. Ph. Coolhaas and J.van Goor, eds, Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden van Indiaan Heren Zeventien der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1960–present), passim; T. Raychaudhuri, Jan Company in Coromandel, 1605–1690: A Study on the Interrelations of European Commerce and Traditional Economies (The Hague, 1962) For exports of Malabar slaves to Ceylon, Batavia, see Generale Missiven VI; H.K. s'Jacob ed., De Nederlanders in Kerala, 1663–1701: De Memories en Instructies Betreffende het Commandement Malabar van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publication, Kleine serie 43 (The Hague, 1976); R. Barendse, "Slaving on the Malagasy Coast, 1640–1700," in S. Evers and M. Spindler, eds, Cultures of Madagascar: Ebb and Flow of Influences (Leiden, 1995). See also M.O. Koshy, The Dutch Power in Kerala (New Delhi, 1989); K.K. Kusuman, Slavery in Travancore (Trivandrum, 1973); M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz, De Vestiging der Nederlanders ter Kuste Malabar (The Hague, 1943); H. Terpstra, De Opkomst der Westerkwartieren van de Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1918). Of 2,467 slaves traded on 12 slave voyages from Batavia, India, and Madagascar between 1677 and 1701 to the Cape, 1,617 were landed with a loss of 850 slaves, or 34.45%. On 19 voyages between 1677 and 1732, the mortality rate was somewhat lower (22.7%). See Shell, "Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1680–1731," p. 332. Filliot estimated the average mortality rate among slaves shipped from India and West Africa to the Mascarene Islands at 20–25% and 25–30%, respectively. Average mortality rates among slaves arriving from closer catchment areas were lower: 12% from Madagascar and 21% from Southeast Africa. See Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves, p. 228; A. Toussaint, La Route des Îles: Contribution à l'Histoire Maritime des Mascareignes (Paris, 1967); Allen, "The Madagascar Slave Trade and Labor Migration." Bowie, Katherine A. (1996). "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices". Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies Monograph Series. 44: 16–33. Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0. Klein, Martin A. (2014). "Maori". Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series (2 ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8108-7528-9. Retrieved February 23, 2019. 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Westview Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8133-3523-0. Noy, David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-0-7156-2952-9. Harper, James (April 1972). "Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome". The American Journal of Philology. Johns Hopkins University Press. 93 (2): 341–342. doi:10.2307/293259. JSTOR 293259. Thomas, Hugh (2006). The Slave Trade: History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7538-2056-8. Hayes, Diana (2003). "Reflections on Slavery". In Curran, Charles E. (ed.). Change in Official Catholic Moral Teachings. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4134-0. "Slave trade". Encyclopedia Britannica. May 14, 2020. Retrieved February 13, 2021. Singer, Isido Singer; Jacobs, Joseph. "Slave-trade". Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved August 29, 2010. "Slavery Encyclopedia of Ukraine". Encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved August 29, 2010. Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward (1987). 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Moreover, German occupation policies in the Soviet Union were far more brutal than in any other country, and German deportation practices the most inhuman." "The Holocaust in Belarus". Facing History and Ourselves. May 12, 2020. Retrieved December 29, 2020. "The non-Jewish population was subjected to Nazi terror, too. Hundreds of thousands were deported to Germany as slave laborers, thousands of villages and towns were burned or destroyed, and millions were starved to death as the Germans plundered the entire region. Timothy Snyder estimates that 'half of the population of Soviet Belarus was either killed or forcibly displaced during World War II: nothing of the kind can be said of any other European country.'" For sources about forced slave labor in GULAG camps, see Applebaum (2003), p. xv, Introduction: "Gulag is the word an acronym for Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei or Central Administration of Camps. Over time, it has also indicated not only the administration of concentration camps, but also the very system of Soviet slave labor, in all its forms and varieties"; Gregory & Lazarev (2003), p. 112: "From the perspective of the Kremlin, Magadan existed as the center of a domestic colony based on slave labor."; Barnes (2011), pp. 7, 36, 262; Dobson (2012), pp. 735–743 Gregory & Lazarev (2003), p. vii: "Much has been written, and much is still to be written, about the Gulag. We all know of its status as an "archipelago" (in Solzhenitsyn's words) of penal slavery, inflicted on millions and held as a threat over the rest of the population." Applebaum 2003. 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A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-521-23150-3. Retrieved February 2, 2014.     Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1997). "Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in Seventeenth-Century Mrauk-U". Journal of Early Modern History. 1 (3): 201–253. doi:10.1163/157006597x00028. ISSN 1385-3783.     Toppin, Edgar (2010). The Black American in United States History. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-1-4759-6172-0.     Vink, Markus P. M. (June 1998). Encounters on the Opposite Coast: Cross-Cultural Contacts between the Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century (PhD). Vol. 1. University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-591-92325-4. ProQuest 304436379. Retrieved February 14, 2021. Further reading Surveys and reference Books     Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-35325-0.     Davies, Stephen (2008). "Slavery, World". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 464–469. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n285. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.     Davis, David Brion (1988) [1966]. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505639-6.     Davis, David Brion (1999). The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988083-6.     Drescher, Seymour (2009). Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery. Cambridge University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-139-48296-7.     Eden, Jeff (2018). Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-63732-9.     Gordon, Murray (1989). Slavery in the Arab World. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0.     Greene, Jacqueline Dembar (2001). Slavery in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Turtleback Books. ISBN 978-0-613-34472-2.     Heuman, Gad J. (2003). The Slavery Reader. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-21304-2.     Hogendorn, Jan; Johnson, Marion (2003). The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54110-7.     Lal, K.S. (1994). Muslim Slave System in Medieval India. ISBN 978-81-85689-67-8. Archived from the original on May 12, 2008.     Miers, Suzanne; Kopytoff, Igor (1979). Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-07334-3.     Montejo, Esteban (2016). Barnet, Miguel (ed.). Biography of a Runaway Slave: Fiftieth Anniversary Edition. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-3342-6.     Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1.     Postma, Johannes (2005). The Atlantic Slave Trade. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-2906-1.     Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-547-64098-3.     Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. Vol. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33273-9.     Shell, Robert Carl-Heinz (1994). Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England [for] Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-5273-0.     Westermann, William Linn (1955). The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-040-1. Journal articles and reviews     Bartlett, Will (May 1994). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". Economic and Industrial Democracy. 15 (2): 296–298. doi:10.1177/0143831x94152010. S2CID 220850066.     Burczak, Theodore (June 2001). "Ellerman's Labor Theory of Property and the Injustice of Capitalist Exploitation". Review of Social Economy. 59 (2): 161–183. doi:10.1080/00346760110035572. JSTOR 29770104. S2CID 144866813.     Devine, Pat (November 1, 1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". Economic Journal. 103 (421): 1560–1561. doi:10.2307/2234490. JSTOR 2234490.     Lawson, Colin (1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". The Slavonic and East European Review. 71 (4): 792–793. JSTOR 4211433.     Lutz, Mark A. (1995). "Book Reviews: Property and Contract in Economics". Review of Social Economy. 53 (1): 141–147. doi:10.1080/00346769500000007.     Pole, J. R. (June 1977). "Review: Slavery and Revolution: The Conscience of the Rich". The Historical Journal. 20 (2): 503–513. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00011171. JSTOR 2638543. S2CID 162624457.     Smith, Stephen C. (December 1994). "Property and Contract in Economics". Journal of Comparative Economics. 19 (3): 463–466. doi:10.1006/jcec.1994.1115.     Woltjer, Geert (March 1996). "Book review: Property and Contract in Economics". European Journal of Law and Economics. 3 (1): 109–112. doi:10.1007/bf00149085. S2CID 195243866. United States     Baptist, Edward (2016). The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism. ISBN 978-0-465-09768-5.     Beckert, Sven; Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016). Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-2417-7.     Berlin, Ira (2009). Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02082-5.     Berlin, Ira; Favreau, Marc; Miller, Steven (2011). Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom. New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-763-3.     Blackmon, Douglas A. (2012). Slavery by Another Name: The re-enslavement of black americans from the civil war to World War Two. Icon Books Limited. ISBN 978-1-84831-413-9.     Boles, John B. (2015). Black Southerners, 1619–1869. University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8131-5786-3.     Engerman, Stanley Lewis (1999). Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3521-6.     Genovese, Eugene D. (2011). Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-77272-5.     King, Richard H.; Genovese, Eugene (1977). "Marxism and the Slave South". American Quarterly. 29 (1): 117. doi:10.2307/2712264. ISSN 0003-0678. JSTOR 2712264.     Mintz, S. "Slavery Facts & Myths". Digital History. Archived from the original on November 6, 2006.     Morgan, Edmund Sears (1975). American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05554-2.; online review     Parish, Peter J. (1989). Slavery: History and Historians. New York: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-06-437001-1.     Parish, Peter J. (2018). Slavery: History And Historians. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-97694-0.     Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (1918). American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Régime. D. Appleton. p. 1.     Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (2007). Life and Labor in the Old South. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-678-1.     Resendez, Andres (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0 – via Google Books.     Sellers, James Benson (1994). Slavery in Alabama. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-0594-9.     Stampp, Kenneth Milton (1969). The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South. A.A. Knopf.     Trenchard, David (2008). "Slavery in America". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 469–70. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n286. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.     Vorenberg, Michael (May 21, 2001). Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65267-4.     Weinstein, Allen; Gatell, Frank Otto; Sarasohn, David, eds. (1979). American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-502470-8. Slavery in the modern era     Brass, Tom; van der Linden, Marcel (1997). Free and unfree labour: the debate continues. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-906756-87-5.     Brass, Tom (2015). Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-82735-1.     Bales, Kevin, ed. (2005). Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93207-4.     Bales, Kevin (2007). Ending Slavery: How We Free Today's Slaves. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25470-1.     Craig, Gary (2007). Contemporary Slavery in the UK: Overview and Key Issues (PDF). York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. ISBN 978-1-85935-573-2.     Hawk, David R. (2012). The Hidden Gulag: The Lives and Voices of "those Who Are Sent to the Mountains" (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea. ISBN 978-0-615-62367-2.     Nazer, Mende; Lewis, Damien (2009). Slave: My True Story. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-0-7867-3897-7.     Sage, Jesse (2015). Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-08310-4.     Sowell, Thomas (2010). "The Real History of Slavery". Black Rednecks and White Liberals. ReadHowYouWant.com. ISBN 978-1-4596-0221-2. External links Look up slavery in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Slavery. Wikiquote has quotations related to Slavery. Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Slavery". Historical     Slavery in America: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress     The Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving, University of Virginia: a searchable database of 25,000 scholarly works on slavery and the slave trade     Digital Library on American Slavery at University of North Carolina at Greensboro     "Slavery Fact Sheets". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014.     The West African Squadron and slave trade, history of the Victorian Royal Navy     Slavery and the Making of America at WNET     "Understanding Slavery". Discovery Education. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010.     Slavery archival sources, University of London, Senate House Library     Mémoire St Barth (archives & history of slavery, slave trade and their abolition), Comité de Liaison et d'Application des Sources Historiques 2010     Archives of the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), 1720–1889 'Trade Company of Middelburg', Inventory of the archives of the Dutch slave trade across the Atlantic (in Dutch)     Slave Ships and the Middle Passage at Encyclopedia Virginia     The Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American slave trade databases at Emory University Modern     2018 Global Slavery Index at the Walk Free Foundation     What is Modern Slavery?; Office To Monitor And Combat Trafficking In Persons, U.S. Department of State. Links to related articles     vte Slave narratives     Slave Narrative Collection Individuals by continent of enslavement     Africa         Robert Adams (c. 1790–?) Marcus Berg (1714-1761) Francis Bok (b. 1979) James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843) Ólafur Egilsson (1564–1639) Petro Kilekwa (late 19th c.) Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785) Maria ter Meetelen (1704–?) Mende Nazer (b. 1982) Hark Olufs (1708–1754) Thomas Pellow (1705–?) Joseph Pitts (1663 – c. 1735) Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) Asia         Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1684–1736) Europe         Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733) Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng) Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng) Jean Marteilhe (1684-1777) Roustam Raza (1783–1845) Ottoman Empire         Johann Schiltberger Konstantin Mihailović George of Hungary North America: Canada         Marie-Joseph Angélique (c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal) John R. Jewitt (1783 England – 1821 United States) North America: Caribbean         Juan Francisco Manzano (1797–1854, Cuba) Esteban Montejo (1860–1965, Cuba) Mary Prince (c. 1788 Bermuda – after 1833) Venerable Pierre Toussaint (1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY) Marcos Xiorro (c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico) North America: United States         Sam Aleckson Jordan Anderson William J. Anderson Jared Maurice Arter Solomon Bayley Polly Berry Henry Bibb Leonard Black James Bradley (1834) Henry "Box" Brown John Brown William Wells Brown Peter Bruner (1845 KY – 1938 OH) Ellen and William Craft Hannah Crafts Lucinda Davis Noah Davis Lucy Delaney Ayuba Suleiman Diallo Frederick Douglass Kate Drumgoold Jordan Winston Early (1814 – after 1894) Sarah Jane Woodson Early Peter Fossett (1815 Monticello–1901) David George Moses Grandy William Green (19th century MD) William Grimes Josiah Henson Fountain Hughes (1848/1854 VA – 1957) John Andrew Jackson Harriet Jacobs Thomas James John Jea Paul Jennings (1799–1874) Elizabeth Keckley Boston King Lunsford Lane J. Vance Lewis Jermain Wesley Loguen James Mars (1790–1880) Solomon Northup Greensbury Washington Offley John Parker (1827 VA – 1900) William Parker James Robert Moses Roper Omar ibn Said William Henry Singleton James Lindsay Smith Venture Smith Austin Steward (1793 VA – 1860) Venerable Pierre Toussaint (1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY) Harriet Tubman Wallace Turnage Bethany Veney Booker T. Washington Wallace Willis (19th century Indian Territory) Harriet E. Wilson Zamba Zembola (b. c. 1780 Congo) South America         Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua (1845–1847, Brazil) Miguel de Buría (? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela) Osifekunde (c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil) Non-fiction books         The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789) The Narrative of Robert Adams (1816) American Slavery as It Is (1839) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) The Life of Josiah Henson (1849) Twelve Years a Slave (1853) My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861) The Underground Railroad Records (1872) Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1881) Up from Slavery (1901) Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States (1936–38) The Peculiar Institution (1956) The Slave Community (1972) Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" (2018) Fiction/novels         Oroonoko (1688) Sab (1841) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) The Heroic Slave (1852) Clotel (1853) The Bondwoman's Narrative (c. 1853 – c. 1861) Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856) Our Nig (1859) Jubilee (1966) The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967) Roots: The Saga of an American Family (1976) Underground to Canada (1977) Kindred (1979) Dessa Rose (1986) Beloved (1987) Middle Passage (1990) Queen: The Story of an American Family (1993) Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons (1996) Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade (2001) Walk Through Darkness (2002) The Known World (2003) Unburnable (2006) The Book of Negroes (2007) The Underground Railroad (2016) Young adult books         Amos Fortune, Free Man (1951) I, Juan de Pareja (1965) Copper Sun (2006) Essays         "To a Southern Slaveholder" (1848) A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853) Plays         The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom (1858) The Octoroon (1859) Documentaries         Unchained Memories (2003) Frederick Douglass and the White Negro (2008) Related         Abolitionism in the United States African-American literature Anti-Tom novels Atlantic slave trade Captivity narrative Caribbean literature Films featuring slavery Slavery in the United States Songs of the Underground Railroad Treatment of slaves in the United States List of last surviving American enslaved people Book of Negroes (1783) Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book (1847) Slave-Trading in the Old South (1931) Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon (2008) Slave Songs of the United States (1867) Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery (2002) The Hemingses of Monticello (2008)     vte Unfree labour relationships and institutions     Conscription Corvée Encomienda Haruwa–charuwa Labour camp Mit'a Penal labour Serfdom Slavery Truck wages     vte Discrimination Forms         Institutional Structural Attributes         Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Language Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity         Skin color Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint Social         Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Antisemitism Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cronyism Elitism Ephebiphobia 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Cultural pluralism Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights LGBT rights Masculism Multiculturalism Nonviolence Racial integration Reappropriation Self-determination Social integration Toleration Related topics         Allophilia Amatonormativity Bias Christian privilege Civil liberties Dehumanization Diversity Ethnic penalty Eugenics Heteronormativity Internalized oppression Intersectionality Male privilege Masculism Medical model of disability         autism Multiculturalism Net bias Neurodiversity Oikophobia Oppression Police brutality Political correctness Polyculturalism Power distance Prejudice Prisoner abuse Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racism by country Religious intolerance Second-generation gender bias Snobbery Social exclusion Social model of disability Social stigma Speciesism Stereotype         threat The talk White privilege     Category Commons     vte Racism Types of racism         Aversive Colorism Covert Cultural Cyber Environmental Gendered Institutional Internalized Laissez-faire Linguistic Neocolonial Romantic Scientific Societal Symbolic Xenophobia Manifestations of racism         Anti-miscegenation laws Apartheid Biological determinism Discrimination based on nationality         Global apartheid Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic jokes Ethnic slurs Ethnic stereotype Hate crime Hate speech Hate group Racial hierarchy Racial nationalism Racial profiling Racial segregation Racism by region         Africa (South Africa) Arab world Asia Australia Europe         Italy Middle East North America         Canada United States South America Racism by target         Arab Asian & Pacific Islander Black         African Americans Misogynoir Hispanic & Latino Jewish         Jewish Americans in Jewish communities LGBT Middle Eastern Muslim Romani White supremacy Black supremacy Related topics         Alt-right Anti-racism Casteism Ethnic plastic surgery Go back to where you came from Herrenvolk democracy Interminority racism in the United States Passing Perpetual foreigner Psychometrics of racism Race and sexuality Race card Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racial integration Racial quota Reverse racism Sociology of race and ethnic relations     Category Commons Index     vte Substantive human rights What is considered a human right is in some cases controversial; not all the topics listed are universally accepted as human rights Civil and political         Equality before the law Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention Freedom of assembly Freedom of association Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment Freedom from discrimination Freedom of information Freedom of movement Freedom of religion Freedom from slavery Freedom of speech Freedom of thought Freedom from torture Legal aid LGBT rights Liberty Nationality Personhood Presumption of innocence Right of asylum Right to die Right to a 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Unemployment insurance Make-work job Job creation program Job creation index Job guarantee Employer of last resort Guaranteed minimum income Right to work Historical: U.S.A: Civil Works Administration Works Progress Administration Comprehensive Employment and Training Act See also         Bullshit job Busy work Credentialism and educational inflation Emotional labor Evil corporation Going postal Kiss up kick down Labor rights Make-work job Money-rich, time-poor Narcissism in the workplace Post-work society Presenteeism Psychopathy in the workplace Slow movement (culture) Toxic leader Toxic workplace Workhouse See also templates     Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of occupations Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Corporate titles Organized labor     vte     Social class     Status Stratum Economic classes Theories         Gilbert model Marxian Mudsill theory New class Spoon class theory Weberian (three-component) Related​ topics         Caste Chattering 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    Category     vte African diaspora Geography     Americas/ Latin America     Caribbean         Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Bahamas Barbados Bermuda Cayman Islands Cuba         Arará Cape Verdean Ganga-Longoba Curaçao Dominica Dominican Republic         Cocolo Samaná Americans Grenada Haiti         Marabou Marron Jamaica         Coromantee Jamaican Maroons Puerto Rico Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines         Black Caribs Garifuna Trinidad and Tobago         Dougla people Merikins Turks and Caicos Islands Central America         Belize         Garifuna Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Miskito people         Miskito Sambu Nicaragua Panama         Cimarrón North America         Canada         Nova Scotia Mexico         Mascogos United States         Black Southerners Black Hispanic Black Indians             Black Seminoles Creoles of color Garifuna Gullah African immigrants South America         Argentina Bolivia Brazil         Kalungas 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Americo-Liberians Nigeria         Afro-Brazilians Saro Sierra Leone         Sierra Leone Creole Europe         France         African Americans Haitians Germany United Kingdom         African Americans Afro-Caribbean people             British Jamaicans Asia and Oceania         Australia China         African India Israel         African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem Americans in Japan         African Korea         North Korea South Korea New Zealand Pakistan         African Philippines         African Qatar         African United Arab Emirates Related topics         Genetic history African diaspora religions Atlantic slave trade         Coromantee Igbo Kongo Tikar Yoruba Black Power Civil rights movement Creole peoples Maroons Pan-Africanism Slavery         Reparations Black Lives Matter Afrophobia Algerian diaspora     Category Commons     vte Incarceration Science         Criminology Penology Prison healthcare Punishment Stanford prison experiment Prisoners         Criminal 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Northern Ireland Scotland United States     Imprisonment and detention Commons     vte Worldview Related terms     Basic beliefs / Beliefs Collective consciousness / Collective unconscious Conceptual system Context Conventional wisdom Conventions Cultural movement Epic poetry / National epics / World folk-epics Facts and factoids Framing Ideology Life stance Lifestyle Memes / Memeplex Mental model Metanarrative Mindset Norms Paradigm Philosophical theory Point of view Presuppositions Primal world beliefs Reality tunnel Schemata School of thought Set Social reality Theory of everything Umwelt Value system Aspects Biases         Academic Attentional Attitude polarization Belief Cognitive         list Collective narcissism Confirmation Congruence Cryptomnesia Cultural Ethnocentrism Filter bubble Homophily In-group favoritism Magical thinking Media Observational error Observer-expectancy Selective exposure Selective perception Self-deception Self-fulfilling prophecy         Clever Hans effect placebo effect wishful thinking Status quo Stereotyping         ethnic Change and maintenance         Activism Argument Argumentum ad populum Attitude change Brainwashing Censorship Charisma Circular reporting Cognitive dissonance Critical thinking Crowd manipulation Cultural dissonance Deprogramming Echo chamber Education         religious values Euphemism Excommunication Fearmongering Historical revisionism         negationism Ideological repression Indoctrination Media manipulation Media regulation Missionaries Moral entrepreneurship Persuasion Polite fiction Political engineering Propaganda Propaganda model Proselytism Psychological manipulation Psychological warfare Religious conversion         forced Religious persecution Religious uniformity Revolutions Rhetoric Self-censorship Social change Social control Social engineering Social influence Social progress Suppression of dissent Systemic bias Woozle effect Culture         Anthropology         cultural social Calendars 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  • Condition: In Excellent Condition
  • Denomination: US Civil War
  • Year of Issue: 2024
  • Time Period: 2000s
  • Fineness: 0.5
  • Collection: US Civil War
  • Features: Commemorative
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain
  • Colour: Gold

PicClick Insights - US Civil War Gold Coin Abraham Lincoln Americana 1861 1865 Abolition of Slavery PicClick Exclusive

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