Seller:sidewaysstairsco✉️(1,180)100%,
Location:Santa Ana, California, US,
Ships to: US & many other countries,
Item:195710503885SYROCO SUNBURST WALL CLOCK vintage Danish MCM mid century modern Nordic atomic. Check out our other new and used items>>>>>HERE! (click me) FOR SALE: A mid-century statement piece for your delightful domicile SYROCO DANISH MODERN SUNBURST WALL CLOCK DETAILS: A blend of Early American and Danish design! This
beautiful mid-century modern wall clock from the treasured home
decorations manufacturer Syroco is the stylish, post-war touch your home
deserves. The fascinating sunburst-shaped clock proudly unites Danish
modern design and antique American furniture concepts. The 28 points of
the atomic age/Nordic-style star (or sunburst) have rounded tips,
scooped middle sections, and are of course tapered - much like the
contemporary Danish and mid-century modern furniture of the time. You'll
notice other great sections of rounded "wood" like the rim of the clock
face and the short extensions that become the points. Syroco stayed
true to their well-oiled wooden roots by using their patented
lightweight composite wood material to construct this clock, in part, as
well they focused on the aesthetic of Early American furniture woods
and stains. The wood finish Syroco appears to be going for is walnut
with a stain that varies, in sunburst fashion, from mahogany to natural.
In large part the wall clock is composed of plastic, which keeps the
sizable home decor piece a managable weight. The contrasting cream colored clock face has numbers with the same feel and wooden appearance of the rim and casing, and contrasting too are the
classic clock hands in black (we believe these hands are not original).
The clock's face also has a noticable hole above the "6" which is
necessary for an 8-day wind-up clock mechanism to fit. That's right,
this beautiful vintage piece was created to be used with either an 8-day
clock or battery-powered quartz clock mechanism. Metal loop on back
makes hanging super simple. Fun Fact: Syroco would later be acquired by
Rexall, a drug and chemical company that was renamed Dart Industries but
not before acquiring ownership of Tupperware - small world, right!?! A rare '60s find! A new venture for Syroco! In
the early 1960s the Syracuse Ornamental Company, known as Syroco, began
combining their old wood processes and newly embraced (at the time)
plastic molding technology; resulting in wonderful, well-designed, and
skillfully constructed household products like this wall clock. "...Syroco,
was an American manufacturing company based in Syracuse, New York. They
were best known for their molded wood-pulp products that resembled
hand-carving. Founded in Syracuse, New York in 1890 by immigrant
Adolph Holstein, the Syracuse Ornamental Company (Syroco) specialized in
decorative wood carving, especially for the local residential market.
Products included fireplace mantelpieces and other types of interior
decoration popular in late Victorian homes... Syroco
added more lines of injection molded plastics when a new plant was
opened in nearby Baldwinsville in 1963 which was entirely geared to
plastics production, especially PVCs and polystyrene. The company began
to use plastic in new "modern" designs and new forms for clocks,
mirrors, tables and a range of household items."(library.syracuse.edu). Dimensions: Height: 22-1/4"Length: 22-1/4" Width: 2-1/4 CONDITION: In
good, pre-owned condition and working. The clock has visible
wear/damage. The "wooden" parts of the clock have a beautiful shabby
chic appearance from use over the decades. The clock face has a few
scrapes and the 8-day clock hole has many short thin craze lines
radiating from the edge. The face could look excellent again with some
paint touch up on the scrapes and even the craze lines. The
battery-powered clock movement works but the hands are bent - we
recommend replacing with a new movement and hands, or just a hand set.
We believe the clock movement and hands were previously replaced.
Hanging hardware has oxidized and shows age. Please see photos. To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK. *ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* "Biographical History The
Syracuse Ornamental Company, known as Syroco, was an American
manufacturing company based in Syracuse, New York. They were best known
for their molded wood-pulp products that resembled hand-carving. Founded
in Syracuse, New York in 1890 by immigrant Adolph Holstein, the
Syracuse Ornamental Company (Syroco) specialized in decorative wood
carving, especially for the local residential market. Products included
fireplace mantelpieces and other types of interior decoration popular in
late Victorian homes. To meet increasing market demand and sales
opportunities Holstein developed a material looked and felt like wood
but that which could be shaped, allowing multiple pieces to be produced
through a molding process. The new product, which combined wood pulp
brought from the Adirondacks with flour as a binder and other materials
to give it strength, was extruded and then cut to fit compression molds,
which had were made from original carvings in real wood. The
process favored shallow molds with little undercutting, and this served
well for the creation of a wide variety of "carved" relief work to be
applied to different sorts of flat surfaces such as walls, furniture and
caskets. Production of this new molded product, known as SyrocoWood,
was the mainstay of the company's production through the 1940s. The
finished material could be smoothed and varnished to look like wood, or
it could be painted. Sales catalogues from the early 1900s through the
1920s offer hundreds of varieties of moldings, capitals, brackets,
volutes, and reliefs of vases, garlands, cartouches, scrollwork, and
other details in a variety of styles. Syroco operated from a
large factory complex on 581 South Clinton Street in Syracuse acquired
from Smith Corona Typewriter Company. The company remained in the hands
of the Holstein family for three generations, with some of Adolph's
children and grandchildren taking over management and sales positions.
At its peak, about 400 workers were employed at the plant. By the
1930s the company had also developed an extensive line of gift and
novelty items made of "SyrocoWood" and also "Woodite," a combination of
wood flour and polymer. In the 1960s the company began to use injection
molding for some of its products, but did not entirely abandon its old
processes. Syroco added more lines of injection molded plastics
when a new plant was opened in nearby Baldwinsville in 1963 which was
entirely geared to plastics production, especially PVCs and polystyrene.
The company began to use plastic in new "modern" designs and new forms
for clocks, mirrors, tables and a range of household items. In 1968-1969
the company launched its "Lady Syroco" home products. Beginning in 1986
Syroco produced a popular line of lawn furniture. In 1965 the
company was bought by Rexall Drug and Chemical Company (which soon
changed its name to Dart Industries). Dart owned Tupperware, from which
Syroco gained more knowledge of injection molding. Syroco was purchased
by the Syratech Corporation of Boston in 1986 which expanded its patio
furniture production. In 1995 Syratech sold Syroco to Marley PLC of
Sevenoaks, England, and in 2004 Syroco was purchased by Vassallo
Industries of Puerto Rico which closed the plant in 2007. In April 2010
Tessy Plastics purchased the 270,000 square foot Syroco plant to be used
for storage and distribution. Sources: "Corkscrews of the Syracuse Ornamental Company," online at vintagecorkscrews.com Hannagan, Charley. "Syroco plant closes," Syracuse Post-Standard, June 18, 2007. Alexander Holstein, interviewed by Sam Gruber, Syracuse, New York, Nov. 8, 2010. Sorcher, Jamie. "Brits in deal for Syroco," HFN The Weekly Newspaper for the Home Furnishing Network, April 3, 1995.... Catalogs Box 1 1908
"Syracuse Ornamental Company, Manufacturers of Cloth Covered
Casket Decorations, Corners, Ornaments, Mouldings, Panels, etc. in
Broadcloth, Plush and Satin, Furniture Ornaments" (1908), 62 pp Box 1 1918 Period Carvings Catalog "K" (1918) Box 1 1923 The Syroco Line of Fibre Wood Carvings and Mouldings: Period Carvings (1923), 432 plates Box 1 1930s Syroco Wood Products (undated) Box 1 1940s
SyrocoWood: Creations by Master Craftsmen (undated, circa
1940s?), 18 pp., Catalog No. 4 (includes some items in Plastics
Artifacts Collection); SyrocoWood: Art Products, Creations by Master Craftsmen (undated, circa 1940s?), 14 pp.; SyrocoWood Devotional items (undated, circa 1940s?), Catalog No. 8, 8 ½" x 11 , 6 panel gate fold; Syroco Wood Gifts and Decorative Accessories (1940), 6 pp. (photocopy), Catalog No. 9; Syroco Wood Decorative Accessories (1947) (photocopy selected pages), Catalog No. 12 Box 1 1950s Syroco Wood: How to Use Decorative Accessories to Beautify Your Home (undated circa 1950s?), 26 pp.; Syroco Catalog No. 53 (1953), 48 pp; Syroco Catalog No 54 (1954), 40 Box 1 1960s Syroco Decorative Wall Accessories (1962), includes Danish Modern Collection, Early American Collection; Carvings by Syroco (1963), 67 pp; Syroco Wall to Wall Decorating; New...Decorative Floral-Mates by Syroco, 4 pp; Syroco Decorative Accessories 1967-'68, 63 pp; Syroco Decorative Accessories 1968-'69, 48 pp; Discover the colorful world of...Lady Syroco Accessories for Bath & Boudoir (undated circa 1968-1969) Box 2 1970-1974 Syroco Decorative Accessories 1970, 48 pp; Retail Pricelist 1970, includes "the Syroco Story"; Syroco Art (1970), folder with inserted sales materials; Syroco Art (undated, circa 1970), 28 color print cards and pricelist bound in clear acetate cover folder; "For Today and Tomorrow..." Syroco presents "Chrome and Chroma: Collection"; "Out of the past..." Syroco presents "The Pre-Columbian Collection"; "In the Beginning..." Syroco presents "Genesis"; "Table Manners..." Syroco presents: Parsons Tables for Every Manner of Home, Color Scheme and Use" Box 2 1975-1979 Metal Wall Sculpture by Syroco (1975), 18 pp; Life Style by Syroco (1976); folder with 1976 Decorative Accessories Catalog and price list; Syroco Decorative Accessories Catalog: 1977 (folder with catalog, price list and promotional sheets on furniture lines) Box 2 1980s Syroco Decorative Accessories Catalog: 1983 (includes Syroco housewares); Syroco Decorative Accessories (1984) Box 2 2000s Syroco Home Accents Collection (circa 2005), 14 pp; Syroco Home & Garden Collection, 10 pp" (library.syracuse.edu) "Made by the Syracuse Ornamental Company, Syroco looks and feels like wood, but is a different kind of art form. Chriss Swaney Updated: Sep 11, 2020 Original: Mar 16, 2018 Alexander
E. Holstein is not bashful about extolling the entrepreneurial prowess
of his grandfather Adolph. His grandfather founded the Syracuse
Ornamental Company (Syroco) in 1890. Syroco Family Ties Holstein,
93, recalls that he was in charge of production at the manufacturing
facility that employed 500 during its heyday in the Syracuse, New York,
area. Initially, the company produced ornamental carvings for
embellishment of coffins and furniture. The company had patents and
copyrights on its processes and designs. This set of four mid-century
Syroco® plaques depict the four seasons. Each diamond-shaped plaque
features a tree that represents one of the seasons. This set of
four mid-century Syroco® plaques depict the four seasons. Each
diamond-shaped plaque features a tree that represents one of the
seasons. “The company was best known for its molded wood-pulp
products that resembled hand carving,’’ said Holstein, who says his home
is a museum of popular Syroco products from mirrors to toothbrush
holders. Other products included fireplace and mantle pieces and
other types of interior decoration popular in late Victorian-era homes.
Plus, the governor’s mansion in Albany, New York, features some Syroco
pieces. To meet increased market demand, Holstein said that his
grandfather, an expert woodcarver from Warsaw, developed a material that
looked and felt like wood but that could be shaped, allowing multiple
pieces to be produced by a molding process. Wood Pulp Into Art The
new product combined wood pulp from the Adirondacks, with flour as a
binder and other materials. After extrusion it was cut to fit
compression molds. These molds were made from original carvings in real
wood by woodcarvers. These carvers originally came to the United States
from several European countries. Production of this new molded
product was the mainstay of the company’s product through the 1940s. The
finished model could be smoothed and varnished to look like wood, or it
could be painted. Sales catalogs from the early 1900s through
the 1920s offer hundreds of varieties of moldings. The advertisements
include various styles of brackets, garlands, cartouches and scrolls. But
by the 1930s, the company had also developed an extensive line of gift
and novelty items. These pieces comprise of syrowood and also woodite — a
combination of wood flour and polymer. In the 1960s, the company began
to use injection molding for some of its products. But, it did not
entirely abandon its old process. Furthermore, antiques dealers
and avid collectors vie daily for their most cherished Syroco pieces
from ornately carved mirrors to bookends and pipe holders. Online Stores Showcasing Syroco Many
collectors trawl the web for great bargains, and one of the more
popular sites is Ruby Lane, where Syroco remains and ongoing headline
grabber. This vintage Syroco pipe holder holds up to six pipes and sold for $75. This vintage Syroco pipe holder holds up to six pipes and sold for $75. Courtesy of The Antique Chasers: rubylane.com/shop/theantiquechasers “We’re
seeing lots of Syroco, including bookends, mirrors, brush holders, pipe
holders, and the very popular figural corkscrews our site and
collectors are bidding for them all,” said Zenna Inness of Ruby Lane.
Prices can range from $34 to $145. Futhermore, Inness said buyers
are an eclectic mix of young and old. But many of the sentimental
buyers and collectors of Syroco are older. Judy Bromly, 66, of
Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, said she recently purchased an ornate Syroco
mirror for her bedroom at an estate sale, and paid $65 for it. “My
grandmother was an avid Syroco collector, and I have several sets of
horse-shaped bookends I now keep in my den.’’ Sales Supports Legacy For others, selling Syroco collectibles is a way to honor a long, lost beloved family member. Mara
Balusek of Dallas, Texas, sells her Syroco collectibles via her
RareFinds shop on Ruby Lane. She collects pipe holders and miniature
boxes. “All my profits from selling my Syroco online goes into a
scholarship fund at Texas-based Stephen F. Austin State University in
the memory of my late son. So far, the scholarship fund sports about
$600,000.” A vintage 1930s-1940s Syroco horse head bottle opener, $36. A vintage 1930s-1940s Syroco horse head bottle opener, $36. Courtesy of RMC Antiques: rubylane.com/shop/rmcantiques Janice
Woods, a Denver, Colorado, antiques dealer, reports that the Syroco
horse-shaped bookends remain popular. “People love horses and any
equine-related Syroco collectibles are extremely popular,’’ said Woods. Tom
Kelly, a dealer at Pittsburgh Antique Shops in the city’s bustling
strip district, said he just sold a pair of Syroco horse head bookends
for $50. “I also sold a couple of Syroco round mirrors for $40,’’ Kelly said. Functional and Fanciful Kelly
points out that more younger couples are finding great value in Syroco
collectibles. “They think it is cool and very functional,’’ said Kelly. Bill
Antonacceo of Ascendant Auction Galleries in Beaver, Pennsylvania, says
younger collectors are turning to Syroco because it is light weight and
extremely functional. “The younger collectors are buying Syroco clocks
and wall décor that can be easily put away quickly when a couples’
freelance job ends and they move on to another high-tech gig,’’ states
Antonacceo, an antique expert. Still, other antique enthusiasts
report that younger collectors opt for Syroco because it is very
economical to purchase and begin a collection. Mary Price of
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, said her daughter began collecting Syroco
during her college days when she needed some wall decorations to tidy up
a drab basement apartment in Boston. “My daughter now collects all
kinds of Syroco clocks and mirrors,’’ said Price, a retired history
teacher. Mid-Century Syroco bookends, Rococo Revival, $35. Mid-Century Syroco bookends, Rococo Revival, $35. Courtesy of Antiques Inn: rubylane.com/shop/antiquesinn1 Fond Memories in Syracuse In
addition, Robert Searing, curator of history at Onondaga Historical
Society in Syracuse, reports several changes of ownership of the Syroco
company. The company would end production in 2007. “We have
several ornamental clocks and mirrors in our collection here at the
historical society,’’ said Searing. “The local population here in
Syracuse have fond memories of the plant and the enormous marketplace it
once dominated,’’ he added. Still, perhaps the best way to find
your favorite Syroco collectible is to go online. One of the newer sites
– Spruce – offers an interesting assortment of Syroco pieces as does
the all-encompassing eBay. But Inness of Ruby Lane admonishes buyers and collectors to do their homework before buying anything. “Collectors
should first check for extant manufacturer’s labels because Syroco is
somewhat of a catchall term online and dealers often erroneously
identify items by that name even though it may be by a competing
company." Syrocodecorative artcarving By Chriss Swaney" (greensburgdailynews.com) " SyrocoWood Products by Syracuse Ornamental Co. Molded Wood Pulp Decorative Items and Jewelry By Pamela Wiggins Updated on 01/11/20 SyrocoWood Example - Wood Pulp Brooch Photos by Jay B. Siegel Have
you ever found a piece of jewelry or a decorative object that looks
like carved wood, complete with wood grain, but when you picked it up to
look closer something wasn’t quite right? Maybe what you have there is
SyrocoWood. The Syracuse Ornamental Company The Syracuse
Ornamental Company, Syroco for short, was founded in Syracuse, New York
in 1890 by a German immigrant named Adolph Holstein, according to
information shared online by the Syracuse University Library. The
company specialized in wood carving early on, supplying fireplace
mantels and other decorative wood interior detailing to local
residential builders. Demand led to innovation as Syroco
developed a process to make products that looked like wood but were
actually made with wood pulp and fillers. The wood pulp was mixed with
flour as a binder along with other materials to make it stronger. The
result was a composite that could be molded into desired shapes to
simulate carved wood. “The process favored shallow molds with
little undercutting, and this served well for the creation of a wide
variety of ‘carved’ relief work to be applied to different sorts of flat
surfaces such as walls, furniture, and caskets. Production of this new
molded product, known as SyrocoWood, was the mainstay of the company's
production through the 1940s. The finished material could be smoothed
and varnished to look like wood, or it could be painted. Sales catalogs
from the early 1900s through the 1920s offer hundreds of varieties of
moldings, capitals, brackets, volutes, and reliefs of vases, garlands,
cartouches, scrollwork, and other details in a variety of styles,” as
shared on the Syracuse University library website. The Growth of the Business As
the business continued to grow, as many as 400 employees manned the
Syroco factory. By the 1930s, the company had expanded to make an
“extensive line of gift and novelty items” under the names “SyrocoWood”
and “Woodite.” The Scottie dog brooch shown here would fall into this
category. The pin backs on these pieces were simple and inexpensive,
likely a reflection of Depression-era economics. Other decorative pieces
made during this era varied in quality with some nicely detailed and
others lacking in design aesthetics. The compression molds used
to make these wood-look pieces were actually created using original wood
carvings, which imparted a realistic look (at least at first glance).
You often don’t realize that a Syroco product is not real wood until you
pick it up and notice a decidedly different feel about it. In fact,
these items almost feel like dense plastic, although not as heavy as
Bakelite. Examining them closely under magnification, however, can
reveal that an exterior finish that has worn away on the edges revealing
the lighter-colored composite material under the surface (as exhibited
in the detailed photo shown above). In the early 1960s, the
company began to include injection molding in the manufacturing process
for some of its products although the older methods were sometimes
employed as well. By 1963 more and more of the company’s products were
being made of plastics with the introduction of a “Lady Syroco” line of
home products and other goods such as clocks, mirrors, and tables. Syroco
was purchased in 1965 by the company that would become Dart Industries,
the owner of a more familiar American brand: Tupperware. The company
changed hands several times and continued to produce plastic wares
including lawn furniture through 2007 when the plant finally closed. Marks on Syroco Products Some
of the products made of SyrocoWood found by collectors today include
trinket or cigarette boxes, wall hangings or plaques, mirror frames, and
candle sconces. Those made in the 1950s and ‘60s tend to have a more
gold-colored finish to them while earlier products more often simulate
genuine wood coloring more closely. Older pieces may be marked
with a foil sticker, but these have sometimes been removed or wore away
with use over time. Those styles are most often identified by the
wood-look material rather than a sticker. Later pieces are often found
marked with foil stickers and/or a Syracuse Ornamental Co. stamp on the
back. Jewelry pieces believed to have been manufactured by this company
are usually not marked and are sometimes misidentified as genuine wood
by novice dealers and collectors." (thesprucecrafts.com) "Atomic
Age in design refers to the period roughly corresponding to 1940–1963,
when concerns about nuclear war dominated Western society during the
Cold War. Architecture, industrial design, commercial design (including
advertising), interior design, and fine arts were all influenced by the
themes of atomic science, as well as the Space Age, which coincided with
that period. Atomic Age design became popular and instantly
recognizable, with a use of atomic motifs and space age symbols. Theme Building in Los Angeles International Airport. Vital forms Abstract
organic forms were identified as a core motif in the 2001 exhibition of
Atomic Age design at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, titled "Vital forms:
American art and design in the atomic age, 1940–1960".[1] Atomic power
was a paradox during the era. It held great promise of technological
solutions for the problems facing an increasingly complex world; at the
same time, people were fearful of a nuclear armageddon, after the use of
atomic weapons at the end of World War II. People were ever-aware of
the potential good, and lurking menace, in technology. Science became
more visible in the mainstream culture through Atomic Age design. Atomic
particles themselves were reproduced in visual design, in areas ranging
from architecture to barkcloth patterns. The geometric atomic patterns
that were produced in textiles, industrial materials, melamine counter
tops, dishware and wallpaper, and many other items, are emblematic of
Atomic Age design. The Space Age interests of the public also began
showing up in Atomic Age designs, with star and galaxy motifs appearing
with the atomic graphics. Vintage atom-shaped ceiling light fixtures. Vintage atom-shaped ceiling light fixtures. The futuristic-looking Keraclonic television. The futuristic-looking Keraclonic television. An atom-shaped ceiling light fixture. An atom-shaped ceiling light fixture. Los Angeles International Airport's "Inside Encounter" lounge in its space age Theme Building. Los Angeles International Airport's "Inside Encounter" lounge in its space age Theme Building. 1950s barkcloth tablecloth with a geometric design and a botanical motif. 1950s barkcloth tablecloth with a geometric design and a botanical motif. Brussels Atomium (1958). Brussels Atomium (1958). Free-form
biomorphic shapes also appear as a recurring theme in Atomic Age
design. British designers at the Council of Industrial Design (CoID)
produced fabrics in the early 1950s that showed "skeletal plant forms,
drawn in a delicate, spidery graphic form", reflecting x-ray technology
that was becoming more widespread and familiar in pop culture. These
botanic designs influenced later Atomic Age patterns that included
repeating organic shapes similar to cells and organisms viewed through a
microscope.[2] There are similarities between many Atomic Age
designs and the mid-century modern trend of the same time. Elements of
Atomic Age and Space Age design were dominant in the Googie design
movement in commercial buildings in the United States. Some streamlined
industrial designs also echoed the influence of futurism that had been
seen much earlier in Art Deco design.[citation needed] Space Age design Whereas
Atomic Age motifs and structures leaned towards design fields such as
architecture and industrial design, Space Age design spread into a
broader range of consumer products, including furniture, clothing
fashion, and even animation styles, as with the popular television show
The Jetsons. Beginning with the dawn of the Space Age (commonly
attributed to the launch of Sputnik in October 1957[3]), Space Age
design captured the optimism and faith in technology that was felt by
much of society during the 1950s and 1960s, together with the design
possibilities afforded by newly accessible materials like fibreglass
that had become much more widely available since the second world war.
Space Age design also had a more vernacular character, appearing in
accessible forms that quickly became familiar to mainstream consumers.
Since the end of the 1970s, Space Age design has become more closely
associated with kitsch and with Googie architecture for popular
commercial buildings such as diners, bowling alleys, and shops, though
the finest examples of its kind have remained desirable and highly
collectible. "Space Age design is closely tied to the pop movement [...]
the fusion of popular culture, art, design, and fashion".[4] Fashion Go-go boots by Andre Courreges, 1965. Issey Miyake's "Flying Saucer" dress. Two
of the most well-known fashion designers to use Space Age themes in
their designs were Pierre Cardin and Paco Rabanne. Pierre Cardin
established the futuristic trend of using synthetic and industrial
materials in fashion, with "forward thinking" innovations in his early
1960s work. Cardin "popularized the use of everyday materials for
fashion items, like vinyl and metal rings for dresses, carpentry nails
for brooches, and common decorative effects such as geometric cut-outs,
appliqués, large pockets, helmets and oversized buttons".[5] In 1964,
Cardin launched his "space age" line, and André Courrèges showed his
"Moon Girl" collection, introducing the white go-go boot style and other
icons of the 1960s.[6] The Japanese designer, Issey Miyake from
Hiroshima, worked in Paris and New York from 1964 to 1970, and used many
atomic age forms, and technologically produced materials in his work.
In 1970 he moved to Tokyo to continue these innovations.[7] Miyake cites
his first encounter with design as being two bridges in his hometown,
Hiroshima, at the hypocenter of the atomic bombing in WWII.[8] Vernacular architecture Example of "dingbat" apartment facade. The
dingbat apartment house, ubiquitous in the Los Angeles, California
area, was built between 1945 through the 1960s, and fused a purist style
with googie influence. The architect, Francis Ventre, coined the term
"Dingbat (building)" for these quickly built stucco and frame simple
structures.[9] These structures often had a single exterior ornament in
the shape of a starburst, boomerang, or pattern of rectangles. Architecture Chemosphere house, Los Angeles. The
Chemosphere house, designed by John Lautner in 1960, has become an icon
of the atomic age home. The octagonal shaped house is cantilevered on a
steep slope in the Hollywood Hills, California. At the time,
Encyclopædia Britannica cited it as the "most modern home built in the
world." (wikipedia.org) "Danish
modern is a style of minimalist furniture and housewares from Denmark
associated with the Danish design movement. In the 1920s, Kaare Klint
embraced the principles of Bauhaus modernism in furniture design,
creating clean, pure lines based on an understanding of classical
furniture craftsmanship coupled with careful research into materials,
proportions, and the requirements of the human body. Designers
such as Arne Jacobsen and Hans Wegner helped bring about a thriving
furniture industry from the 1940s to the 1960s. Adopting mass-production
techniques and concentrating on form rather than just function, Finn
Juhl contributed to the style's success. Additionally, minimalist Danish
housewares such as cutlery and trays of teak and stainless steel and
dinnerware such as those produced in Denmark for Dansk International
Designs in its early years, expanded the Danish modern aesthetic beyond
furniture.[citation needed] History A row of brown, wooden chairs with a seat made of some woven material Kaare Klint: Church Chair (1936) Origin Between
the two world wars, Kaare Klint exerted a strong influence on Danish
furniture making. Appointed head of the Furniture Department at the
Architecture School of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, he
encouraged his students to take an analytical approach, adapting design
to modern-day needs. Adopting the Functionalist trend of abandoning
ornamentation in favour of form, he nonetheless maintained the warmth
and beauty inherent in traditional Danish cabinet making, as well as
high-quality craftsmanship and materials.[1] The development of
modern Danish furniture owes much to the collaboration between
architects and cabinetmakers. Cabinetmaker A. J. Iversen, who had
successfully exhibited furniture from designs by architect Kay Gottlob
at the International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts
in 1925 in Paris, was instrumental in fostering further partnerships.
In 1927, with a view to encouraging innovation and stimulating public
interest, the Danish Cabinetmakers Guild organized a furniture
exhibition in Copenhagen which was to be held every year until 1967. It
fostered collaboration between cabinetmakers and designers, creating a
number of lasting partnerships including those between Rudolph Rasmussen
and Kaare Klint, A. J. Iversen and Ole Wanscher, and Erhard Rasmussen
and Børge Mogensen. From 1933, collaboration was reinforced as a result
of the annual competition for new types of furniture, arranged each year
prior to the exhibition.[2][3] In 1931, another key institution
in the development of Danish Modern formed; The Association of Arts
(Danish: Forening for Kunsthaandværk) founded a permanent venue for arts
and craft called Den Permanente [da].[4] Start of the Golden Age In
the postwar years, Danish designers and architects believed that design
could be used to improve people's lives. In the late 1940s, the growing
middle class in Denmark began to show interest in Danish Modern and
helped fuel further investment into the style.[5] Particular attention
was given to creating affordable furniture and household objects that
were both functional and elegant. Fruitful cooperation ensued, combining
Danish craftsmanship with innovative design. Initially, the furniture
was handmade, but recognizing that their work would sell better if
prices were reduced, the designers soon turned to factory production. The
scarcity of materials after World War II encouraged the use of plywood.
In the late 1940s, the development of new techniques led to the mass
production of bent plywood designs by Hans Wegner and Børge Mogensen,
both of whom produced chairs with a teak plywood seat and back on a
beech frame. In 1951, Arne Jacobsen went even further with his
sculptural Ant Chair with a one-piece plywood seat and back, bent in
both directions. Collapsible chairs dating from the 1930s include Kaare
Klint's Safari Chair and propeller stools which were also developed by
Poul Kjærholm and Jørgen Gammelgaard.[6] Danish furniture exports grew from just DKK 0.8 million in 1939 to DKK 6.8 million in 1944.[7] The international market Interest
in Danish Modern in the United States began when Edgar Kaufmann, Jr.
from the Museum of Modern Art purchased some items for the Fallingwater
home designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.[8] This ultimately led to
mass-production in the United States, too.[9] Furniture exports
from Denmark rose from DKK 9.8 million in 1953 to DKK 257.8 million in
1964. This was aided in part by Denmark's decision to copy the British
30% devaluation in September 1949, which brought the price Danish goods
drastically down for American consumers.[10] From the beginning
of the 1950s, American manufacturers obtained licenses for the mass
production of Danish designs while maintaining high standards of
craftsmanship. Later, the designs were altered to suit American tastes
and American parts were introduced to reduce costs. When Sears and
Woolworth's entered the market, the Danes countered by producing new
designs based on new materials. One of Wegner's works was used by
Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy in a 1960 televised debate and is now
known simply as The Chair.[11] Decline in popularity Sales
peaked around 1963, but when American manufacturers introduced molded
plastic and wood-grained Formica as cheaper substitutes, they started to
decline in favor of Mediterranean designs which became popular in
1966.[8][12] In addition to changes in style preferences, customers'
shopping habits had changed to favor affordable and lower-cost furniture
over a single investment that would last their lifetime.[13] A
1980 New York Times article observed that Danish modern "went out of
style" in the United States, due in part to counterculture, "which would
have none of the earnest establishment image of Scandinavian design",
and the "new culture, for which only the shocking is chic".[14] Many
factories closed during this time and the Cabinetmakers' Guild
Exhibition held its final event in 1966 after too few cabinetmakers
remained in Copenhagen to sustain it.[15] Resurgence of interest In
the late 1990s, Danish modern, and the broader mid-century modern
movement, experienced a revival in international interest.[16] While
the mass-produced works of Wegner, Juhl and Jacobsen are still in
demand, collectors are increasingly turning to limited production items
from these and the other designers. In the United States, while prices
have increased, they are still at reasonable levels compared to similar
items of new furniture. Licensed manufacturers have started reissuing
key designs, while others have used Danish Modern for inspiration.[17] The Danish furniture industry today Employing
some 15,000 people each year, Denmark's 400 furniture companies produce
goods worth around DKK 13 billion (€1.75 billion). A highly productive
sector, over 80% of the furniture produced is sold abroad making
furniture Denmark's fifth most-important export industry. Most of the
items produced are for the home, but many are designed for the
workplace. In addition to its classic designs, Danish designer furniture
benefits from a new generation of innovative players. As a result,
Denmark has maintained its place as the world's leading furniture
producer in relation to the country's population.[18] A number of
firms continue to be active in producing both classic Danish Modern
designs and in introducing variants designed by a new generation of
artists. They include Republic of Fritz Hansen, Fredericia Furniture,
Carl Hansen & Søn and Normann Copenhagen, all of whom exhibited at
the 2011 Salone Internazionale del Mobile in Milan.[19] Other
significant producers include PP Møbler, Kjærholm Production and One
Collection, formerly known as Hansen & Sørensen.[citation needed] However,
a large amount of Danish furniture is now produced outside of Denmark.
Production has been outsourced to aboard where costs are lower, mainly
Baltic countries and eastern and southern Europe. Republic of Fritz
Hansen, for example, has moved their production to Poland.[20] New types
of Danish design companies have emerged with both national and
international appeal in recent years. Normann Copenhagen, HAY, Muuto,
Kähler are among new firms that carry Danish modern design principles
forward.[20] Innovative design work is also encouraged by the
Wilhelm Hansen Foundation with the annual Finn Juhl Prize which is
awarded to designers, manufacturers or writers who have made a special
contribution to the field of furniture design, especially chairs.[21] Main contributors Kaare Klint (1888—1954) As
a result of the furniture school he founded at the Royal Academy in
1924, Klint had an impact on Danish furniture, influencing designers
such as Kjærholm and Mogensen. His carefully researched designs are
based on functionality, proportions in line with the human body,
craftsmanship and the use of high quality materials. Notable examples of
his work include the Propeller Stool (1927), the Safari Chair and the
Deck Chair (both 1933), and the Church Chair (1936).[22] Table and chairs, Danish Design Museum Table and chairs, Danish Design Museum Library at the Danish Design Museum Library at the Danish Design Museum Poul Henningsen (1894–1967) Poul
Henningsen, an architect, with a strong belief in the functionalist way
of thinking, was an important participant in the Danish Modern school,
not for furniture but for lighting design. His attempt to prevent the
blinding glare from the electric lamp bulb succeeded in 1926 with a
three-shade lamp, known as the PH lamp. The curvature of the shades
allowed his hanging lamp to illuminate both the table and the rest of
the room. He went on to design many similar lamps, some with frosted
glass, including desk lamps, chandeliers and wall-mounted fixtures.
Although he died in 1967, many of his designs continue to be
popular.[23] PH Lamp (1925) variation with frosted glass PH Lamp (1925) variation with frosted glass PH desk lamp (1941) PH desk lamp (1941) The PH5 Lamp (1958) The PH5 Lamp (1958) The PH Artichoke The PH Artichoke Mogens Lassen (1901–1987) In
addition to his architectural work, Lassen was also a keen furniture
designer. Influenced both by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
he developed a unique approach to Functionalism.[24] As a result of his
fine craftsmanship and his search for simplicity, his steel-based
furniture from the 1930s added a new dimension to the modernist
movement. His later designs in wood still form part of classical Danish
Modern, especially his three-legged stool[25] and folding Egyptian
coffee table (1940) originally produced by A. J. Iversen.[26] Arne Jacobsen (1902–1971) Graduating
from the Royal Academy in 1924, Jacobsen quickly demonstrated his
mastery of both architecture and furniture design. With the completion
of his Royal Hotel in Copenhagen and all its internal fittings and
furniture in 1960, his talents became widely recognized, especially as a
result of the chairs called the Egg chair and the Swan, now
international icons. His stackable, three-legged Ant Chair (1952) with a
one-piece plywood seat and back and its four-legged counterpart, the
Model 3107 chair (1955), were particularly popular with worldwide sales
in the millions.[27] Wooden-legged Grand Prix Chair (1957) Wooden-legged Grand Prix Chair (1957) The Egg (1958) The Egg (1958) The Swan (1958) The Swan (1958) Three-legged Ant Chair (1952) Three-legged Ant Chair (1952) The 7 Chair (1955) The 7 Chair (1955) Ole Wanscher (1903–1985) Inspired
by Kaare Klint under whom he had studied, Wanscher later followed in
his footsteps as professor of the Royal Academy's furniture school.
Particularly interested in 18th-century English furniture and in early
Egyptian furniture, one of his most successful pieces was his delicately
designed Egyptian Stool (1960) crafted from luxurious materials.
Another successful item was his Colonial Chair in Brazilian
rosewood.[28] He was awarded the Grand Prix for furniture at Milan's
triennale in 1960.[29] Finn Juhl (1912–1989) Though he
studied architecture at the Royal Academy, Juhl was a self-taught
designer of furniture. In the late 1930s, he created furniture for
himself but from 1945 he became recognized for his expressively
sculptural designs, placing emphasis on form rather than function, so
breaking tradition with the Klint school. His successful interior design
work at the United Nations Headquarters in New York spread the notion
of Danish Modern far and wide, paving the way for the international
participation of his Danish colleagues. Two key pieces of furniture, in
which the seat and backrest are separated from the wooden frame, are his
45-Chair, with its elegant armrests, and his Chieftain Chair
(1949).[30] Finn Juhl's home in Charlottenlund, just north of
Copenhagen, has been preserved as he left it with the furniture he
designed. Finn Juhl furniture at the Danish Design Museum Finn Juhl furniture at the Danish Design Museum Poet Sofa in room at Copenhagen's Bella Sky Hotel Poet Sofa in room at Copenhagen's Bella Sky Hotel Chair in Design Museum Danmark Chair in Design Museum Danmark Børge Mogensen (1914–1972) After
studying under Kaare Klint at the Copenhagen School of Arts and Crafts
and at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Mogensen adopted Klint's
approach to simple, functional furniture design. Taking an almost
scientific approach to an item's functionality, most of his furniture is
characterized by strong, simple lines and was designed for industrial
production. Notable items include his oak-framed Hunting Chair (1950)
with a strong leather back and seat, his light, open Spokeback Sofa
(1945), and the low robust Spanish Chair (1959).[31] Spanish Chair (1959) Spanish Chair (1959) Spokeback Sofa (1945) Spokeback Sofa (1945) Hans Wegner (1914–2007) Best
known as ‘the Master of the Chairs,' Wegner created fascinating
furniture with clean, organic and aesthetic lines, balanced by a
minimalist and composed aspect. He was a modernist with emphasis on the
practicality and elegance of each piece he crafted. He believed the
versatility and usability of his designs were as vital for him as the
looks of them. After graduating in architecture in 1938, he worked in
Arne Jacobsen and Eric Møller's office before establishing his own
office in 1943. Striving for functionality as well as beauty, he became
the most prolific Danish designer, producing over 500 different chairs.
His Round Chair (technically Model 500) in 1949 was called "the world's
most beautiful chair" before being labelled simply "The Chair" after
Nixon and Kennedy used it in a 1960 televised debate. His Wishbone
Chair, also 1949, with a Y-shaped back split and a curved back, was
inspired by a Chinese child's chair he had seen. A work of simplicity
and comfort, it is still made today by the Danish firm Carl Hansen &
Son. Wegner's designs can now be found in several of the world's top
design museums including New York's Museum of Modern Art.[32][33] The Wishbone Chair (1949) The Wishbone Chair (1949) Hans Wegner chair, Centre Pompidou, Paris Hans Wegner chair, Centre Pompidou, Paris The Round Chair (1949) The Round Chair (1949) The Peacock Chair The Peacock Chair Grete Jalk (1920–2006) After
training as a cabinetmaker, she studied at the Danish Design School in
1946, while receiving additional instruction from Kaare Klint at the
Royal Academy's Furniture School. Inspired by Alvar Aalto's laminated
bent-plywood furniture and Charles Eames' moulded plywood designs, she
began to develop her own boldly curved models in the 1950s. In 1963, she
won a Daily Mirror competition with her "He Chair" and "She Chair".
With the help of furniture manufacturer Poul Jeppesen, she went on to
design simpler models with clear, comfortable lines, which became
popular both in Denmark and the United States thanks to their
competitive prices. Jalk also edited the Danish design magazine Mobilia
and compiled an authoritative four-volume work on Danish
furniture.[34][35] Grete Jalk: plywood GJ Chair (1963) Grete Jalk: plywood GJ Chair (1963) Grete Jalk's GJ Table (1963) Grete Jalk's GJ Table (1963) Verner Panton (1926–1998) On
graduating from the Royal Academy in 1951, Panton worked briefly with
Arne Jacobsen. During the 1960s, he designed furniture, lamps and
textiles with an imaginative combination of innovative materials,
playful shapes and bold colours. Among his earliest designs were the
Bachelor Chair and Tivoli Chair (1955), both produced by Fritz Hansen,
but he is remembered above all for his Panton Chair (1960), the world's
first one-piece moulded plastic chair.[36] Sometimes referred to as a
pop artist, unlike the majority of his colleagues, he continued to be
successful in the 1970s, not only with furniture but with interior
designs including lighting.[37][38] Heart Cone chairs (1959) Heart Cone chairs (1959) Panton Chair (1960) Panton Chair (1960) Flowerpot Lamps (designed 1968) Flowerpot Lamps (designed 1968) Moon Lamp (designed 1967) Moon Lamp (designed 1967) Poul Kjærholm (1929–1980) In
addition to an academic career at the School of Arts and Crafts and at
the Institute of Design at the Royal Academy, Kjærholm always took full
account of the importance of place a piece of furniture had in
surrounding architectural space. Functionality took second place to his
artistic approach which was centred on elegantly clean lines and
attention to detail. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he worked
essentially with steel, combining it with wood, leather, cane or marble.
Kjærhom developed a close understanding with the cabinetmaker E. Kold
Christensen who produced most of his designs. Today a wide selection of
his furniture is produced by Fritz Hansen. Kjærholm's work can be seen
in New York's Museum of Modern Art and the Victoria and Albert Museum in
London.[39] PK0 chair, designed 1952 but first produced 1997 PK0 chair, designed 1952 but first produced 1997 Hammock Chair 25 (1965) Hammock Chair 25 (1965) PK9 Chair (1960) PK9 Chair (1960) Kjærholm's chairs in the Louisiana Museum Kjærholm's chairs in the Louisiana Museum Jens Risom (1916–2016) Often
credited with having introduced Danish Modern design to America, Risom
was a graduate of Copenhagen School of Industrial Arts and Design. He
emigrated to the United States in 1939 to study American design, working
first as a textile designer and later as a freelance furniture
designer. In 1941 he joined Hans Knoll at the Hans Knoll Furniture
Company, and together they toured the country promoting Risom's designs.
A true minimalist, Risom worked mainly in wood because it was cheap,
and one of his most successful pieces, Knoll Chair #654 (which is still
being manufactured)[40] was made with a seat of nylon webbing that had
been discarded by the army. Other contributors Many other designers and cabinetmakers contributed to the Danish modern scene. Several worked in partnerships, including:[41] Tove and Edvard Kindt-Larsen (1901–1982), both students of Kaare Klint, working with contrasting materials[42] Peter Hvidt (1916–1986) and Orla Mølgaard-Nielsen (1907–1993), remembered for the Ax Chair (1950) and the X Chair (1960) Ejner Larsen (1917–1987) and Aksel Bender Madsen (1916–2000) working mainly with teak and rosewood Preben Fabricius (1931–1984) and Jørgen Kastholm (1938–2007), demonstrating originality with their Horseshoe Chair (1962) A number of cabinetmakers also developed skills in design. They include: Jacob Kjær (1896–1957), famous for his FN Chair, who also produced the furniture he designed Frits Henningsen (c. 1900 – c. 1970), who designed models produced at his own workshop in Copenhagen[43] Several other individuals made important contributions: Mogens Koch (1898–1992), remembered for his bookcases (1928) and folding chair (1932) Jørgen Gammelgaard (1938–1991), known for his Tip-Top lamp series. Rigmor Andersen (1903–1995), a versatile designer, maintaining the strict traditions of Klint's furniture school.[44] Peder Moos (1906–1991), designed and built individual pieces on request, with his own special finish[45] Kurt Østervig (1912–1986), trained in Odense, designed furniture for ships and cinemas as well as for the home.[46] Helge Vestergaard Jensen (1917–1987), who produced the Daybed (1955)
Hans Olsen (1919–1992), who experimented with materials and form,
creating a number of items in his own distinctive style.[47] Nanna Ditzel (1923–2005), pioneering new materials and production techniques, also working with textiles and jewelry Poul Volther (1923–2001), remembered above all for his iconic Corona Chair.[48]
Arne Vodder (1926–2009), a close friend and partner of Finn Juhl, his
furniture sold particularly well in the United States.[49] Bodil
Kjær (born 1932), architect and interior designer who created a
successful series of office furniture in the 1960s.[50] Bernt
Petersen (born 1937), notable for his small, light stool (1959) with
beautifully shaped legs and for his seating in theatres and concert
halls.[51] A number of Danish textile designers worked closely
with furniture designers to help shape the look of Danish modernism, for
example by creating textiles for cushions, sofas, and beds. These
include Lis Ahlmann and Vibeke Klint, among others. Danish Modern chairs at the Danish Design Center in Copenhagen In popular culture The Cat Who Ate Danish Modern (1967): The second novel of American writer Lilian Jackson Braun's The Cat Who...
In The Brady Bunch Season 2, Episode 18 — in "Our Son, the Man" the
family house's den is referred to as being Danish modern. In
House, M.D. Season 3, Episode 6 — in "Que Sera Sera" House's interior
design preferences (as well as his patient, George's) are called Danish
modern." (wikipedia.org) "Raygun
Gothic is a catchall term for a visual and architectural style that,
when applied to retrofuturistic science fiction environments,
incorporates various aspects of the Googie, Streamline Moderne and Art
Deco architectural styles. Academic Lance Olsen has characterised Raygun
Gothic as "a tomorrow that never was".[1] It is inspired by Space Age,
raypunk and atompunk subcultures. The style has also been
associated with architectural indulgence, and situated in the context of
the golden age of modern design due to its use of features such as
"single-support beams, acute angles, brightly colored paneling" as well
as "shapes and cutouts showing motion".[2] Origin The term was coined by William Gibson in his 1981 story "The Gernsback Continuum":[2][3]
Cohen introduced us and explained that Dialta [a noted pop-art
historian] was the prime mover behind the latest Barris-Watford project,
an illustrated history of what she called "American Streamlined
Modern." Cohen called it "raygun Gothic." Their working title was The
Airstream Futuropolis: The Tomorrow That Never Was. — William Gibson, "The Gernsback Continuum"" (wikipedia.org) "Quartz
clocks and quartz watches are timepieces that use an electronic
oscillator regulated by a quartz crystal to keep time. This crystal
oscillator creates a signal with very precise frequency, so that quartz
clocks and watches are at least an order of magnitude more accurate than
mechanical clocks. Generally, some form of digital logic counts the
cycles of this signal and provides a numerical time display, usually in
units of hours, minutes, and seconds. Since the 1980s, when the
advent of solid-state digital electronics allowed them to be made
compact and inexpensive, quartz timekeepers have become the world's most
widely used timekeeping technology, used in most clocks and watches as
well as computers and other appliances that keep time." (wikipedia.org) "Tupperware
is an American home products line that includes preparation, storage,
and serving products for the kitchen and home. In 1942, Earl Tupper
developed his first bell-shaped container; the brand products were
introduced to the public in 1946. Tupperware develops,
manufactures, and internationally distributes its products as a wholly
owned subsidiary of its parent company Tupperware Brands; as of 2007, it
was sold by means of approximately 1.9 million direct salespeople on
contract. In 2013, the top marketplace for Tupperware was
Indonesia, which topped Germany as the second. Indonesia's sales in 2013
were more than $200 million.[2] Company history Tupperware containers from 2011 2 Colourful Tupperware containers Colourful Tupperware containers Tupperware
was developed in 1946 by Earl Tupper (1907–1983) in Leominster,
Massachusetts.[3] He developed polyethylene plastic containers to be
used in households to contain food and keep them airtight, which
featured a "burping seal" that was patented in 1949.[4] Tupper had
already invented the plastic for Tupperware in 1938,[dubious – discuss]
but the product succeeded with the emergence of the "sale through
presentation" idea, held in a party setting.[5] Tupperware
developed a direct marketing strategy to sell products known as the
Tupperware party. The Tupperware party enabled women of the 1950s to
earn an income while keeping their focus in the domestic domain.[6] The
"party plan" model relies on characteristics generally assumed of
housewives (e.g., party planning, hosting a party, and sociable
relations with friends and neighbors). Brownie Wise (1913–1992)
recognized Tupperware's potential as a commodity. She realized that she
had to be creative and therefore started to throw these Tupperware
parties.[7] Wise, a former sales representative of Stanley Home
Products, developed the strategy.[8] As a result, Wise was made vice
president of marketing in 1951. Wise soon created Tupperware Parties
Inc.[9] During the early 1950s, Tupperware's sales and popularity
exploded, thanks in large part to Wise's influence among women who sold
Tupperware, and some of the famous "jubilees" celebrating the success
of Tupperware ladies at lavish and outlandishly themed parties. At a
time when women came back from working during World War II only to be
told to "go back to the kitchen",[10] Tupperware was known as a method
of empowering women and giving them a toehold in the postwar business
world.[11][12] The tradition of Tupperware's "Jubilee" style events
continues to this day, with rallies being held in major cities to
recognize and reward top-selling and top-recruiting individuals, teams,
and organizations. Tupperware spread to Europe in 1960 when Mila
Pond hosted Tupperware parties in Weybridge, England, and other
locations around the world. At the time, a strict dress code was
required for Tupperware ladies, with skirts and stockings (tights) worn
at all times, and white gloves often accompanying the outfit.[13] A
technique called "carrot calling" helped promote the parties:
representatives would travel door-to-door in a neighborhood and ask
housewives to "run an experiment" in which carrots would be placed in a
Tupperware container and compared with "anything that you would
ordinarily leave them in"; it would often result in the scheduling of a
Tupperware party.[13] Rexall, by now the owner of the Tupperware
brand, sold its namesake drugstores in 1977 and renamed itself Dart
Industries. Dart merged with Kraftco to form Dart & Kraft. The
company demerged, with the former Dart assets renamed Premark
International. Tupperware Brands was spun off from Premark in 1996;
Premark was acquired by Illinois Tool Works three years later.[14] In
2003 Tupperware closed down operations in the UK and Ireland, citing
customer dissatisfaction with their direct sales model.[15] There has
been limited importer-based distribution since then.[16] The company
announced a formal relaunch in the UK in mid-2011,[17] and recruited UK
staff, but in December the relaunch was canceled.[18] As of 2007 Tupperware was sold by means of approximately 1.9 million direct salespeople on contract.[19] In
May 2018, the Israeli daily TheMarker, reported that Tupperware will
withdraw from Israel leaving 2,000 agents without a job. The article
attributed this decision to the regional headquarters which manages
other Middle Eastern countries.[20] Tupperware Israel relaunched in
December 2020 as an online shop.[21] In March 2021 Tupperware closed down in the Netherlands.[22] In August 2022 Tupperware announced it would be leaving the New Zealand market in late 2022.[23] On
November 2, 2022, after publishing quarterly results, the company said
its inability to maintain compliance with its credit agreement raises
substantial doubt about its ability to continue as a going concern. The
stock value dropped more than 40%.[citation needed] In April 2023 the
company warned that there is "substantial doubt about the company's
ability to continue as a going concern". The stock price dropped almost
50% on the same day.[24] On April 11, 2023, Tupperware’s stock value
plummeted to $1.30. Although there was a slight recovery the following
day, its sliding sales and increasing debt prompt warnings of permanent
company closure unless it receives substantial investment.[25] As
of April 2023 Tupperware has 82 countries listed as places they
trade.[26] This list is not up-to-date as there have been closures. "
(wikipedia.org) "Rexall
was a chain of American drugstores, and the name of their store-branded
products. The stores, having roots in the federation of United Drug
Stores starting in 1903, licensed the Rexall brand name to as many as
12,000 drug stores across the United States from 1920 to 1977. The "Rex"
in the name was derived from the name of Ellen M. Regis, who developed
"Rexall remedies" and from whom the company purchased the mark.[1] Founding In
1903, Louis K. Liggett persuaded 40 independent drug stores to invest
$4,000 in a retailers' cooperative called United Drug Stores, which sold
products under the Rexall name. After World War I, the cooperative
established a franchise arrangement whereby independently owned retail
outlets adopted the Rexall trade name and sold Rexall products. The
company was based in Boston,[2] in an area now occupied by Northeastern
University. Rexall Train Postcard photo of the Rexall Train. The
Rexall Train of March to November 1936 toured the United States and
Canada to promote Rexall drug store products and to provide the
equivalent of a national convention for local Rexall druggists without
the cost of travel. Free tickets for locals to see displays of Rexall
products were available at local Rexall drug stores. The 29,000 mile
tour visited 47 of the 48 contiguous states (omitting Nevada) and parts
of Canada. A streamlined steam-powered 4-8-2 Mohawk locomotive
(No. 2873) from the New York Central Railroad hauled the similarly
streamlined blue-and-white train of twelve air-conditioned Pullman cars.
Four of the cars contained displays, four contained convention
facilities and one housed a dining car. The train was the million-dollar
brainchild of Louis Liggett, who traveled in an observation car at its
rear.[3] Growth Rexall Drug Store at Rock Rapids, Iowa (2006) Rexall Drug 120 Panchromatic High Speed Film (1960s) Justin
Whitlock Dart, formerly of the Walgreens drugstore chain, took control
of Boston-based United Drug Company in 1943. The chain operated under
the Liggett, Owl, Sonta, and Rexall brands, which Dart rebranded under
the Rexall name. Rexall gained national exposure through its
sponsorship of two famous classic American radio programs of the 1940s
and 1950s: Amos and Andy and The Phil Harris-Alice Faye Show. Both shows
were often opened by an advertisement from an actor (Griff Barnett)
portraying "your Rexall family druggist", and included the catch phrase
"Good health to all from Rexall." They also sponsored the Jimmy Durante
Show and references are made by the character Mr. Peavey in some of The
Great Gildersleeve radio shows. Rexall also sponsored Richard Diamond,
Private Detective starring Dick Powell from April 1950 until Camel
replaced Rexall as the sponsor after the December 6, 1950,
broadcast.[citation needed] In 1946, United-Rexall Drug Inc.
purchased the Renfro chain in Texas, and Lane Drug Stores which had 58
stores throughout the Southeast.[citation needed] It also launched the
Owl Superstores chain. In 1947, the company held a gala opening for
their new headquarters and first store in Los Angeles, California. The
new Hollywood Owl was reported in Life as 'the World's Biggest
Drugstore'.[4] In 1958, the Rexall Drug Company was the largest U.S.
drug store franchise, with 11,158 stores (for comparison, fewer than
12,000 McDonald's restaurants are in the U.S. today). Time noted that
two-thirds of its stores were in areas where one-third of the population
lived. However, this comprised more than 20% of all drug stores in the
United States.[citation needed] Also in 1958, Rexall employee Joe
Coulombe was asked to test the launch of Pronto Markets, a store brand
to compete against 7-Eleven. After running six Pronto Markets in the Los
Angeles area, Rexall asked Coulombe to close them down. Coulombe
decided to buy them out instead, and eventually renamed the chain
"Trader Joe's".[5] Dart sold his stake in Rexall in 1978. Dart
had acquired stakes in West Bend, Duracell, Hobart Corporation,
Tupperware, Ralph Wilson Plastics, and Archer Glass, which were
collectively known as Dart Industries." (wikipedia.org) "Danish
design is a style of functionalistic design and architecture that was
developed in mid-20th century. Influenced by the German Bauhaus school,
many Danish designers used the new industrial technologies, combined
with ideas of simplicity and functionalism to design buildings,
furniture and household objects, many of which have become iconic and
are still in use and production. Prominent examples are the Egg chair,
the PH lamps and the Sydney Opera House (Australia).... Create account Log in Personal tools Contents (Top) History Modern trends Architecture Recent achievements Designers Museums See also References External links Danish design Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Part of a series on the Culture of Denmark Architecture Art Cuisine Design Folklore Holidays Literature Media Cinema Television Radio Newspapers Magazines Internet Music Philosophy Photography Sculpture Sports Theatre vte Arne Jacobsen's clock in the Glostrup Town Hall, Glostrup, Denmark Danish
design is a style of functionalistic design and architecture that was
developed in mid-20th century. Influenced by the German Bauhaus school,
many Danish designers used the new industrial technologies, combined
with ideas of simplicity and functionalism to design buildings,
furniture and household objects, many of which have become iconic and
are still in use and production. Prominent examples are the Egg chair,
the PH lamps and the Sydney Opera House (Australia). History See also: Danish modern The
Danish Culture Canon credits Thorvald Bindesbøll (1846–1908) with early
contributions to design in the areas of ceramics, jewellery,
bookbinding, silver and furniture although he is known in the rest of
the world for creating the Carlsberg logo (1904), still in use today.[1]
The Canon also includes Knud V. Engelhardt (1882–1931) for a more
industrial approach, especially in the rounded contours of his electric
tramcar designs which were widely copied.[2] In the area of textiles,
Marie Gudme Leth (1895–1997) brought the screen printing process to
Denmark, opening a factory in 1935 which allowed her colourful patterns
to be manufactured on an industrial basis.[3] August Sandgren introduced
functionalism in the design of his masterful bookbindings. The forms and materials of Hans Wegner's Wishbone Chair are representative of the movement's aesthetic In
the late 1940s, shortly after the end of the Second World War,
conditions in Denmark were ideally suited to success in design. The
emphasis was on furniture but architecture, silver, ceramics, glass and
textiles also benefitted from the trend. Denmark's late
industrialisation combined with a tradition of high-quality
craftsmanship formed the basis of gradual progress towards industrial
production. After the end of the war, Europeans were keen to find novel
approaches such as the light wood furniture from Denmark. Last but not
least, support in Denmark for freedom of individual expression assisted
the cause.[4] The newly established Furniture School at the Royal
Danish Academy of Art played a considerable part in the development of
furniture design. Kaare Klint taught functionalism based on the size and
proportions of objects, wielding considerable influence. Hans J.
Wegner, who had been trained as a cabinetmaker, contributed with a
unique sense of form, especially in designing chairs.[5] As head
of FDB Møbler, Børge Mogensen designed simple and robust objects of
furniture for the average Danish family. Finn Juhl demonstrated an
individualistic approach in designing chairs with an appealing but
functional look. In the early 1950s, American design also
influenced Danish furniture. The American Charles Eames designed and
manufactured chairs of moulded wood and steel pipes. These encouraged
Arne Jacobsen to design his worldfamous Ant Chair, Denmark's first
industrially manufactured chair. Furthermore, as Shaker furniture—and
especially its reputation for stripped down chairs—began to be more and
more known abroad, it also influenced Danish designers.[6] Poul
Kjærholm, Verner Panton and Nanna Ditzel followed a few years later,
continuing the successful story of Danish design. Kjærholm worked mainly
in steel and leather, Panton left Denmark during the 1960s to continue
designing imaginative but highly unconventional plastic chairs while
Nanna Ditzel, who also had a strongly individualistic approach, was
successful in helping to renew Danish furniture design in the 1980s. "
(wikipedia.org) "A
clock or a timepiece[1] is a device used to measure and indicate time.
The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to
measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the
day, the lunar month and the year. Devices operating on several physical
processes have been used over the millennia. Some predecessors
to the modern clock may be considered as "clocks" that are based on
movement in nature: A sundial shows the time by displaying the position
of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, a
well-known example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with the
sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments. A major
advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made
possible the first mechanical clocks around 1300 in Europe, which kept
time with oscillating timekeepers like balance wheels.[2][3][4][5] Traditionally,
in horology (the study of timekeeping), the term clock was used for a
striking clock, while a clock that did not strike the hours audibly was
called a timepiece. This distinction is no longer made. Watches and
other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are usually not
referred to as clocks.[6] Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th
century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished. The
next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of
the pendulum clock by Christiaan Huygens. A major stimulus to improving
the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise
time-keeping for navigation. The mechanism of a timepiece with a series
of gears driven by a spring or weights is referred to as clockwork; the
term is used by extension for a similar mechanism not used in a
timepiece. The electric clock was patented in 1840, and electronic
clocks were introduced in the 20th century, becoming widespread with the
development of small battery-powered semiconductor devices. The
timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a
physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates at a particular
frequency.[3] This object can be a pendulum, a tuning fork, a quartz
crystal, or the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves,
the last method of which is so precise that it serves as the definition
of the second. Clocks have different ways of displaying the
time. Analog clocks indicate time with a traditional clock face, with
moving hands. Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time.
Two numbering systems are in use: 12-hour time notation and 24-hour
notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or
VFD displays. For the blind and for use over telephones, speaking
clocks state the time audibly in words. There are also clocks for the
blind that have displays that can be read by touch. Etymology The
word clock derives from the medieval Latin word for 'bell'—clocca—and
has cognates in many European languages. Clocks spread to England from
the Low Countries,[7] so the English word came from the Middle Low
German and Middle Dutch Klocke.[8] The word derives from the Middle
English clokke, Old North French cloque, or Middle Dutch clocke, all of
which mean 'bell', and stem from an Old Irish root.... nalog See also: Clock face A modern quartz clock with a 24-hour face A
linear clock at London's Piccadilly Circus tube station. The 24 hour
band moves across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent
movement of the sun above ground, and a pointer fixed on London points
to the current time. Analog clocks usually use a clock face which
indicates time using rotating pointers called "hands" on a fixed
numbered dial or dials. The standard clock face, known universally
throughout the world, has a short "hour hand" which indicates the hour
on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a
longer "minute hand" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on
the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes. It may also have a
"second hand" which indicates the seconds in the current minute. The
only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial,
because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and
timetables. Before the modern clock face was standardized during the
Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the
years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. During the
French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour
clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but
it did not achieve widespread use. An Italian 6 hour clock was developed
in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch
striking 24 times uses more power). Another type of analog clock
is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time
by the shadow position of its gnomon. Because the sun does not adjust to
daylight saving time, users must add an hour during that time.
Corrections must also be made for the equation of time, and for the
difference between the longitudes of the sundial and of the central
meridian of the time zone that is being used (i.e. 15 degrees east of
the prime meridian for each hour that the time zone is ahead of GMT).
Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist
clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog
mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative
systems have been proposed. For example, the "Twelv" clock indicates the
current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by
showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase.... Purposes Many
cities and towns traditionally have public clocks in a prominent
location, such as a town square or city center. This one is on display
at the center of the town of Robbins, North Carolina Clocks are
in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are
carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places,
e.g. a railway station or church. A small clock is often shown in a
corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players. The
primary purpose of a clock is to display the time. Clocks may also have
the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically
to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as alarm
clocks. The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have
the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm
clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to
children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has
finished; they are sometimes called training clocks. A clock
mechanism may be used to control a device according to time, e.g. a
central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter).
Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also
used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical
telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to
counteract the rotation of the Earth. Most digital computers
depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize
processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few research
projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some
equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as
required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from
the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its
cycles. In Chinese culture, giving a clock (traditional Chinese:
送鐘; simplified Chinese: 送钟; pinyin: sòng zhōng) is often taboo,
especially to the elderly as the term for this act is a homophone with
the term for the act of attending another's funeral (traditional
Chinese: 送終; simplified Chinese: 送终; pinyin: sòngzhōng).[91][92][93] This
homonymic pair works in both Mandarin and Cantonese, although in most
parts of China only clocks and large bells, and not watches, are called
"zhong", and watches are commonly given as gifts in China. However,
should such a gift be given, the "unluckiness" of the gift can be
countered by exacting a small monetary payment so the recipient is
buying the clock and thereby counteracting the '送' ("give") expression
of the phrase. Time standards Main articles: Time standard and Atomic clock For
some scientific work timing of the utmost accuracy is essential. It is
also necessary to have a standard of the maximum accuracy against which
working clocks can be calibrated. An ideal clock would give the time to
unlimited accuracy, but this is not realisable. Many physical processes,
in particular including some transitions between atomic energy levels,
occur at exceedingly stable frequency; counting cycles of such a process
can give a very accurate and consistent time—clocks which work this way
are usually called atomic clocks. Such clocks are typically large, very
expensive, require a controlled environment, and are far more accurate
than required for most purposes; they are typically used in a standards
laboratory. " (wikipedia.org) "Mid-century
modern (MCM) is a design movement in interior, product, graphic design,
architecture, and urban development that was popular in the United
States and Europe from roughly 1945 to 1969,[1][2] during the United
States's post–World War II period. The term was used descriptively as
early as the mid-1950s and was defined as a design movement by Cara
Greenberg in her 1984 book Mid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s.
It is now recognized by scholars and museums worldwide as a significant
design movement. The MCM design aesthetic is modern in style and
construction, aligned with the Modernist movement of the period. It is
typically characterized by clean, simple lines and honest use of
materials, and it generally does not include decorative embellishments. Architecture This
section needs additional citations for verification. Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012) (Learn how and when
to remove this template message) Mid-century modern architectureCalifornia Mid-Century Modern Home with open-beam ceiling 1960.jpg Tract house in Tujunga, California, featuring open-beamed ceilings, c. 1960 Years active 1945–1969 Country United States Influences International, Bauhaus Detail of Copan, a Niemeyer building in São Paulo, Oscar Niemeyer The
mid-century modern movement in the U.S. was an American reflection of
the International and Bauhaus movements, including the works of Gropius,
Florence Knoll, Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[3] Although
the American component was slightly more organic in form and less
formal than the International Style, it is more firmly related to it
than any other. Brazilian and Scandinavian architects were very
influential at this time, with a style characterized by clean simplicity
and integration with nature. Like many of Wright's designs, Mid-century
architecture was frequently employed in residential structures with the
goal of bringing modernism into America's post-war suburbs. This style
emphasized creating structures with ample windows and open floor plans,
with the intention of opening up interior spaces and bringing the
outdoors in. Many Mid-century houses utilized then-groundbreaking post
and beam architectural design that eliminated bulky support walls in
favor of walls seemingly made of glass. Function was as important as
form in Mid-century designs, with an emphasis placed on targeting the
needs of the average American family. Eichler Homes – Foster Residence, Granada Hills In
Europe, the influence of Le Corbusier and the CIAM resulted in an
architectural orthodoxy manifest across most parts of post-war Europe
that was ultimately challenged by the radical agendas of the
architectural wings of the avant-garde Situationist International,
COBRA, as well as Archigram in London. A critical but sympathetic
reappraisal of the internationalist oeuvre, inspired by Scandinavian
Moderns such as Alvar Aalto, Sigurd Lewerentz and Arne Jacobsen, and the
late work of Le Corbusier himself, was reinterpreted by groups such as
Team X, including structuralist architects such as Aldo van Eyck, Ralph
Erskine, Denys Lasdun, Jørn Utzon and the movement known in the United
Kingdom as New Brutalism. Pioneering builder and real estate
developer Joseph Eichler was instrumental in bringing Mid-century modern
architecture ("Eichler Homes") to subdivisions in the Los Angeles area
and the San Francisco Bay region of California, and select housing
developments on the east coast. George Fred Keck, his brother Willam
Keck, Henry P. Glass, Mies van der Rohe, and Edward Humrich created
Mid-century modern residences in the Chicago area. Mies van der Rohe's
Farnsworth House is extremely difficult to heat or cool, while Keck and
Keck were pioneers in the incorporation of passive solar features in
their houses to compensate for their large glass windows. Mid-century modern in Palm Springs Miller House, by Richard Neutra The
city of Palm Springs, California is noted for its many examples of
Mid-century modern architecture.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][excessive
citations] Architects include:[11][12] Welton Becket: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Wurdeman) (1947) (demolished, 1996[13])
John Porter Clark: Welwood Murray Library (1937); Clark Residence
(1939) (on the El Minador golf course); Palm Springs Women's Club (1939)
William F. Cody: Stanley Goldberg residence;[14] Del Marcos Motel
(1947); L'Horizon Hotel, for Jack Wrather and Bonita Granville (1952);
remodel of Thunderbird Country Club clubhouse (c. 1953) (Rancho Mirage);
Tamarisk Country Club (1953) (Rancho Mirage) (now remodeled); Huddle
Springs restaurant (1957); St. Theresa Parish Church (1968); Palm
Springs Library (1975) Craig Ellwood: Max Palevsky House (1970)
Albert Frey: Palm Springs City Hall (with Clark and Chambers)
(1952–57); Palm Springs Fire Station #1 (1955); Tramway Gas Station
(1963); Movie Colony Hotel; Kocher-Samson Building (1934) (with A.
Lawrence Kocher); Raymond Loewy House (1946); Villa Hermosa Resort
(1946); Frey House I (1953); Frey House II (1963); Carey-Pirozzi house
(1956); Christian Scientist Church (1957); Alpha Beta Shopping Center
(1960) (demolished) Victor Gruen: City National Bank (now Bank of
America) (1959)[15] (designed as an homage to the Chapelle Notre Dame
du Haut, Ronchamp, by Le Corbusier) A. Quincy Jones: Palm Springs
Tennis Club (with Paul R. Williams) (1946); Town & Country Center
(with Paul R. Williams) (1947–50); J.J. Robinson House (with Frederick
E. Emmons) (1957); Ambassador and Mrs. Walter H. Annenberg House (with
Frederick E. Emmons) (1963) William Krisel:[16] Ocotillo Lodge(1957); House of Tomorrow(1962).[17]
John Lautner: Desert Hot Springs Motel (1947); Arthur Elrod House
(1968) (interiors used in filming James Bond's Diamonds Are Forever);
Hope Residence (1973) John Black Lee: Specialized in residential
houses. Lee House 1 (1952), Lee House 2 (1956) for which he won the
Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects, Day House
(1965), * System House (1961), Rogers House (1957), Ravello (1960)
Gene Leedy: The Sarasota School of Architecture, sometimes called
Sarasota Modern, is a regional style of post-war architecture that
emerged on Florida's Central West Coast. Frederick Monhoff: Palm Springs Biltmore Resort (1948) (demolished, 2003[13])
Richard Neutra (Posthumous AIA Gold Medal honoree): Grace Lewis Miller
house (1937) (includes her Mensendlieck posture therapy studio);[18]
Kaufmann Desert House (1946);[19] Samuel and Luella Maslon House,
Tamarisk Country Club, Rancho Mirage (1962) (demolished 2003)[13] William Pereira: Robinson's (1953) William Gray Purcell (with protégé Van Evera Bailey): Purcell House (1933) (cubist modern)
Donald Wexler: Steel Developmental Houses,[20] Sunny View Drive (1961).
Home developer, Alexander Homes, popularized this post-and-beam
architectural style in the Coachella Valley. Alexander houses and
similar homes feature low-pitched roofs, wide eaves, open-beamed
ceilings, and floor-to-ceiling windows.[7]: 66–75 E. Stewart
Williams: Frank Sinatra House (1946) (with piano-shaped pool); Oasis
commercial building (with interiors by Paul R. Williams) (1952); William
and Marjorie Edris House (1954); Mari and Steward Williams House
(1956); Santa Fe Federal Savings Building (1958); Coachella Valley
Savings & Loan (now Washington Mutual) (1960); Palm Springs Desert
Museum (1976) Paul Williams: Palm Springs Tennis Club (with Jones) (1946) Frank Lloyd Wright Jr.: Oasis Hotel (1923) Walter Wurdeman: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Welton Becket) (1947) (demolished 1996)[13] Examples
of 1950s Palm Springs motel architecture include Ballantines Movie
Colony (1952) – one portion is the 1935 Albert Frey San Jacinto Hotel –
the Coral Sands Inn (1952), and the Orbit Inn (1957).[21] Restoration
projects have been undertaken to return many of these residences and
businesses to their original condition.[22] Industrial design Scandinavian
design was very influential at this time, with a style characterized by
simplicity, democratic design and natural shapes. Glassware (Iittala –
Finland), ceramics (Arabia – Finland), tableware (Georg Jensen –
Denmark), lighting (Poul Henningsen – Denmark), and furniture (Danish
modern) were some of the genres for the products created. In America,
east of the Mississippi, the American-born Russel Wright, designing for
Steubenville Pottery, and Hungarian-born Eva Zeisel designing for Red
Wing Pottery and later Hall China created free-flowing ceramic designs
that were much admired and heralded in the trend of smooth, flowing
contours in dinnerware. On the West Coast of America the industrial
designer and potter Edith Heath (1911–2005) founded Heath Ceramics in
1948. The company was one of the numerous California pottery
manufacturers that had their heyday in post-war US, and produced
Mid-Century modern ceramic dish-ware. Edith Heath's "Coupe" line remains
in demand and has been in constant production since 1948, with only
periodic changes to the texture and color of the glazes.[23] The Tamac
Pottery company produced a line of mid-century modern biomorphic
dinnerware and housewares between 1946 to 1972.[24] Social medium Printed
ephemera documenting the mid-century transformations in design,
architecture, landscape, infrastructure, and entertainment include
mid-century linen post cards from the early 1930s to the late 1950s.
These post cards came about through innovations pioneered through the
use of offset lithography. The cards were produced on paper with a high
rag content, which gave the post card a textured look and feel. At the
time this was a less expensive process. Along with advances in printing
technique, mid-century linen postcards allowed for very vibrant ink
colors. The encyclopedic geographic imagery of mid-century linen post
cards suggests popular middle class attitudes about nature, wilderness,
technology, mobility and the city during the mid-20th century.[25] Curt
Teich in Chicago[26] was the most prominent and largest printer and
publisher of Linen Type postcards[27] pioneering lithography with his
"Art Colortone" process.[28] Other large publishers include Stanley
Piltz in San Francisco, who established the "Pictorial Wonderland Art
Tone Series", Western Publishing and Novelty Company in Los Angeles and
the Tichnor Brothers in Boston.[29] The printing of mid-century linen
post cards began to give way in the late 1950s to Kodachrome and
Ektachrome color prints." (wikipedia.org) "Danish
modern is a style of minimalist furniture and housewares from Denmark
associated with the Danish design movement. In the 1920s, Kaare Klint
embraced the principles of Bauhaus modernism in furniture design,
creating clean, pure lines based on an understanding of classical
furniture craftsmanship coupled with careful research into materials,
proportions, and the requirements of the human body. Designers
such as Arne Jacobsen and Hans Wegner helped bring about a thriving
furniture industry from the 1940s to the 1960s. Adopting mass-production
techniques and concentrating on form rather than just function, Finn
Juhl contributed to the style's success. Additionally, minimalist Danish
housewares such as cutlery and trays of teak and stainless steel and
dinnerware such as those produced in Denmark for Dansk International
Designs in its early years, expanded the Danish modern aesthetic beyond
furniture.[citation needed] History A row of brown, wooden chairs with a seat made of some woven material Kaare Klint: Church Chair (1936) Origin Between
the two world wars, Kaare Klint exerted a strong influence on Danish
furniture making. Appointed head of the Furniture Department at the
Architecture School of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, he
encouraged his students to take an analytical approach, adapting design
to modern-day needs. Adopting the Functionalist trend of abandoning
ornamentation in favour of form, he nonetheless maintained the warmth
and beauty inherent in traditional Danish cabinet making, as well as
high-quality craftsmanship and materials.[1] The development of
modern Danish furniture owes much to the collaboration between
architects and cabinetmakers. Cabinetmaker A. J. Iversen, who had
successfully exhibited furniture from designs by architect Kay Gottlob
at the International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts
in 1925 in Paris, was instrumental in fostering further partnerships.
In 1927, with a view to encouraging innovation and stimulating public
interest, the Danish Cabinetmakers Guild organized a furniture
exhibition in Copenhagen which was to be held every year until 1967. It
fostered collaboration between cabinetmakers and designers, creating a
number of lasting partnerships including those between Rudolph Rasmussen
and Kaare Klint, A. J. Iversen and Ole Wanscher, and Erhard Rasmussen
and Børge Mogensen. From 1933, collaboration was reinforced as a result
of the annual competition for new types of furniture, arranged each year
prior to the exhibition.[2][3] In 1931, another key institution
in the development of Danish Modern formed; The Association of Arts
(Danish: Forening for Kunsthaandværk) founded a permanent venue for arts
and craft called Den Permanente [da].[4] Start of the Golden Age In
the postwar years, Danish designers and architects believed that design
could be used to improve people's lives. In the late 1940s, the growing
middle class in Denmark began to show interest in Danish Modern and
helped fuel further investment into the style.[5] Particular attention
was given to creating affordable furniture and household objects that
were both functional and elegant. Fruitful cooperation ensued, combining
Danish craftsmanship with innovative design. Initially, the furniture
was handmade, but recognizing that their work would sell better if
prices were reduced, the designers soon turned to factory production. The
scarcity of materials after World War II encouraged the use of plywood.
In the late 1940s, the development of new techniques led to the mass
production of bent plywood designs by Hans Wegner and Børge Mogensen,
both of whom produced chairs with a teak plywood seat and back on a
beech frame. In 1951, Arne Jacobsen went even further with his
sculptural Ant Chair with a one-piece plywood seat and back, bent in
both directions. Collapsible chairs dating from the 1930s include Kaare
Klint's Safari Chair and propeller stools which were also developed by
Poul Kjærholm and Jørgen Gammelgaard.[6] Danish furniture exports grew from just DKK 0.8 million in 1939 to DKK 6.8 million in 1944.[7] The international market Interest
in Danish Modern in the United States began when Edgar Kaufmann, Jr.
from the Museum of Modern Art purchased some items for the Fallingwater
home designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.[8] This ultimately led to
mass-production in the United States, too.[9] Furniture exports
from Denmark rose from DKK 9.8 million in 1953 to DKK 257.8 million in
1964. This was aided in part by Denmark's decision to copy the British
30% devaluation in September 1949, which brought the price Danish goods
drastically down for American consumers.[10] From the beginning
of the 1950s, American manufacturers obtained licenses for the mass
production of Danish designs while maintaining high standards of
craftsmanship. Later, the designs were altered to suit American tastes
and American parts were introduced to reduce costs. When Sears and
Woolworth's entered the market, the Danes countered by producing new
designs based on new materials. One of Wegner's works was used by
Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy in a 1960 televised debate and is now
known simply as The Chair.[11] Decline in popularity Sales
peaked around 1963, but when American manufacturers introduced molded
plastic and wood-grained Formica as cheaper substitutes, they started to
decline in favor of Mediterranean designs which became popular in
1966.[8][12] In addition to changes in style preferences, customers'
shopping habits had changed to favor affordable and lower-cost furniture
over a single investment that would last their lifetime.[13] A
1980 New York Times article observed that Danish modern "went out of
style" in the United States, due in part to counterculture, "which would
have none of the earnest establishment image of Scandinavian design",
and the "new culture, for which only the shocking is chic".[14] Many
factories closed during this time and the Cabinetmakers' Guild
Exhibition held its final event in 1966 after too few cabinetmakers
remained in Copenhagen to sustain it.[15] Resurgence of interest In
the late 1990s, Danish modern, and the broader mid-century modern
movement, experienced a revival in international interest.[16] While
the mass-produced works of Wegner, Juhl and Jacobsen are still in
demand, collectors are increasingly turning to limited production items
from these and the other designers. In the United States, while prices
have increased, they are still at reasonable levels compared to similar
items of new furniture. Licensed manufacturers have started reissuing
key designs, while others have used Danish Modern for inspiration.[17] The Danish furniture industry today Employing
some 15,000 people each year, Denmark's 400 furniture companies produce
goods worth around DKK 13 billion (€1.75 billion). A highly productive
sector, over 80% of the furniture produced is sold abroad making
furniture Denmark's fifth most-important export industry. Most of the
items produced are for the home, but many are designed for the
workplace. In addition to its classic designs, Danish designer furniture
benefits from a new generation of innovative players. As a result,
Denmark has maintained its place as the world's leading furniture
producer in relation to the country's population.[18] A number of
firms continue to be active in producing both classic Danish Modern
designs and in introducing variants designed by a new generation of
artists. They include Republic of Fritz Hansen, Fredericia Furniture,
Carl Hansen & Søn and Normann Copenhagen, all of whom exhibited at
the 2011 Salone Internazionale del Mobile in Milan.[19] Other
significant producers include PP Møbler, Kjærholm Production and One
Collection, formerly known as Hansen & Sørensen.[citation needed] However,
a large amount of Danish furniture is now produced outside of Denmark.
Production has been outsourced to aboard where costs are lower, mainly
Baltic countries and eastern and southern Europe. Republic of Fritz
Hansen, for example, has moved their production to Poland.[20] New types
of Danish design companies have emerged with both national and
international appeal in recent years. Normann Copenhagen, HAY, Muuto,
Kähler are among new firms that carry Danish modern design principles
forward.[20] Innovative design work is also encouraged by the
Wilhelm Hansen Foundation with the annual Finn Juhl Prize which is
awarded to designers, manufacturers or writers who have made a special
contribution to the field of furniture design, especially chairs.[21] Main contributors Kaare Klint (1888—1954) As
a result of the furniture school he founded at the Royal Academy in
1924, Klint had an impact on Danish furniture, influencing designers
such as Kjærholm and Mogensen. His carefully researched designs are
based on functionality, proportions in line with the human body,
craftsmanship and the use of high quality materials. Notable examples of
his work include the Propeller Stool (1927), the Safari Chair and the
Deck Chair (both 1933), and the Church Chair (1936).[22] Table and chairs, Danish Design Museum Table and chairs, Danish Design Museum Library at the Danish Design Museum Library at the Danish Design Museum Poul Henningsen (1894–1967) Poul
Henningsen, an architect, with a strong belief in the functionalist way
of thinking, was an important participant in the Danish Modern school,
not for furniture but for lighting design. His attempt to prevent the
blinding glare from the electric lamp bulb succeeded in 1926 with a
three-shade lamp, known as the PH lamp. The curvature of the shades
allowed his hanging lamp to illuminate both the table and the rest of
the room. He went on to design many similar lamps, some with frosted
glass, including desk lamps, chandeliers and wall-mounted fixtures.
Although he died in 1967, many of his designs continue to be
popular.[23] PH Lamp (1925) variation with frosted glass PH Lamp (1925) variation with frosted glass PH desk lamp (1941) PH desk lamp (1941) The PH5 Lamp (1958) The PH5 Lamp (1958) The PH Artichoke The PH Artichoke Mogens Lassen (1901–1987) In
addition to his architectural work, Lassen was also a keen furniture
designer. Influenced both by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
he developed a unique approach to Functionalism.[24] As a result of his
fine craftsmanship and his search for simplicity, his steel-based
furniture from the 1930s added a new dimension to the modernist
movement. His later designs in wood still form part of classical Danish
Modern, especially his three-legged stool[25] and folding Egyptian
coffee table (1940) originally produced by A. J. Iversen.[26] Arne Jacobsen (1902–1971) Graduating
from the Royal Academy in 1924, Jacobsen quickly demonstrated his
mastery of both architecture and furniture design. With the completion
of his Royal Hotel in Copenhagen and all its internal fittings and
furniture in 1960, his talents became widely recognized, especially as a
result of the chairs called the Egg chair and the Swan, now
international icons. His stackable, three-legged Ant Chair (1952) with a
one-piece plywood seat and back and its four-legged counterpart, the
Model 3107 chair (1955), were particularly popular with worldwide sales
in the millions.[27] Wooden-legged Grand Prix Chair (1957) Wooden-legged Grand Prix Chair (1957) The Egg (1958) The Egg (1958) The Swan (1958) The Swan (1958) Three-legged Ant Chair (1952) Three-legged Ant Chair (1952) The 7 Chair (1955) The 7 Chair (1955) Ole Wanscher (1903–1985) Inspired
by Kaare Klint under whom he had studied, Wanscher later followed in
his footsteps as professor of the Royal Academy's furniture school.
Particularly interested in 18th-century English furniture and in early
Egyptian furniture, one of his most successful pieces was his delicately
designed Egyptian Stool (1960) crafted from luxurious materials.
Another successful item was his Colonial Chair in Brazilian
rosewood.[28] He was awarded the Grand Prix for furniture at Milan's
triennale in 1960.[29] Finn Juhl (1912–1989) Though he
studied architecture at the Royal Academy, Juhl was a self-taught
designer of furniture. In the late 1930s, he created furniture for
himself but from 1945 he became recognized for his expressively
sculptural designs, placing emphasis on form rather than function, so
breaking tradition with the Klint school. His successful interior design
work at the United Nations Headquarters in New York spread the notion
of Danish Modern far and wide, paving the way for the international
participation of his Danish colleagues. Two key pieces of furniture, in
which the seat and backrest are separated from the wooden frame, are his
45-Chair, with its elegant armrests, and his Chieftain Chair
(1949).[30] Finn Juhl's home in Charlottenlund, just north of
Copenhagen, has been preserved as he left it with the furniture he
designed. Finn Juhl furniture at the Danish Design Museum Finn Juhl furniture at the Danish Design Museum Poet Sofa in room at Copenhagen's Bella Sky Hotel Poet Sofa in room at Copenhagen's Bella Sky Hotel Chair in Design Museum Danmark Chair in Design Museum Danmark Børge Mogensen (1914–1972) After
studying under Kaare Klint at the Copenhagen School of Arts and Crafts
and at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Mogensen adopted Klint's
approach to simple, functional furniture design. Taking an almost
scientific approach to an item's functionality, most of his furniture is
characterized by strong, simple lines and was designed for industrial
production. Notable items include his oak-framed Hunting Chair (1950)
with a strong leather back and seat, his light, open Spokeback Sofa
(1945), and the low robust Spanish Chair (1959).[31] Spanish Chair (1959) Spanish Chair (1959) Spokeback Sofa (1945) Spokeback Sofa (1945) Hans Wegner (1914–2007) Best
known as ‘the Master of the Chairs,' Wegner created fascinating
furniture with clean, organic and aesthetic lines, balanced by a
minimalist and composed aspect. He was a modernist with emphasis on the
practicality and elegance of each piece he crafted. He believed the
versatility and usability of his designs were as vital for him as the
looks of them. After graduating in architecture in 1938, he worked in
Arne Jacobsen and Eric Møller's office before establishing his own
office in 1943. Striving for functionality as well as beauty, he became
the most prolific Danish designer, producing over 500 different chairs.
His Round Chair (technically Model 500) in 1949 was called "the world's
most beautiful chair" before being labelled simply "The Chair" after
Nixon and Kennedy used it in a 1960 televised debate. His Wishbone
Chair, also 1949, with a Y-shaped back split and a curved back, was
inspired by a Chinese child's chair he had seen. A work of simplicity
and comfort, it is still made today by the Danish firm Carl Hansen &
Son. Wegner's designs can now be found in several of the world's top
design museums including New York's Museum of Modern Art.[32][33] The Wishbone Chair (1949) The Wishbone Chair (1949) Hans Wegner chair, Centre Pompidou, Paris Hans Wegner chair, Centre Pompidou, Paris The Round Chair (1949) The Round Chair (1949) The Peacock Chair The Peacock Chair Grete Jalk (1920–2006) After
training as a cabinetmaker, she studied at the Danish Design School in
1946, while receiving additional instruction from Kaare Klint at the
Royal Academy's Furniture School. Inspired by Alvar Aalto's laminated
bent-plywood furniture and Charles Eames' moulded plywood designs, she
began to develop her own boldly curved models in the 1950s. In 1963, she
won a Daily Mirror competition with her "He Chair" and "She Chair".
With the help of furniture manufacturer Poul Jeppesen, she went on to
design simpler models with clear, comfortable lines, which became
popular both in Denmark and the United States thanks to their
competitive prices. Jalk also edited the Danish design magazine Mobilia
and compiled an authoritative four-volume work on Danish
furniture.[34][35] Grete Jalk: plywood GJ Chair (1963) Grete Jalk: plywood GJ Chair (1963) Grete Jalk's GJ Table (1963) Grete Jalk's GJ Table (1963) Verner Panton (1926–1998) On
graduating from the Royal Academy in 1951, Panton worked briefly with
Arne Jacobsen. During the 1960s, he designed furniture, lamps and
textiles with an imaginative combination of innovative materials,
playful shapes and bold colours. Among his earliest designs were the
Bachelor Chair and Tivoli Chair (1955), both produced by Fritz Hansen,
but he is remembered above all for his Panton Chair (1960), the world's
first one-piece moulded plastic chair.[36] Sometimes referred to as a
pop artist, unlike the majority of his colleagues, he continued to be
successful in the 1970s, not only with furniture but with interior
designs including lighting.[37][38] Heart Cone chairs (1959) Heart Cone chairs (1959) Panton Chair (1960) Panton Chair (1960) Flowerpot Lamps (designed 1968) Flowerpot Lamps (designed 1968) Moon Lamp (designed 1967) Moon Lamp (designed 1967) Poul Kjærholm (1929–1980) In
addition to an academic career at the School of Arts and Crafts and at
the Institute of Design at the Royal Academy, Kjærholm always took full
account of the importance of place a piece of furniture had in
surrounding architectural space. Functionality took second place to his
artistic approach which was centred on elegantly clean lines and
attention to detail. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he worked
essentially with steel, combining it with wood, leather, cane or marble.
Kjærhom developed a close understanding with the cabinetmaker E. Kold
Christensen who produced most of his designs. Today a wide selection of
his furniture is produced by Fritz Hansen. Kjærholm's work can be seen
in New York's Museum of Modern Art and the Victoria and Albert Museum in
London.[39] PK0 chair, designed 1952 but first produced 1997 PK0 chair, designed 1952 but first produced 1997 Hammock Chair 25 (1965) Hammock Chair 25 (1965) PK9 Chair (1960) PK9 Chair (1960) Kjærholm's chairs in the Louisiana Museum Kjærholm's chairs in the Louisiana Museum Jens Risom (1916–2016) Often
credited with having introduced Danish Modern design to America, Risom
was a graduate of Copenhagen School of Industrial Arts and Design. He
emigrated to the United States in 1939 to study American design, working
first as a textile designer and later as a freelance furniture
designer. In 1941 he joined Hans Knoll at the Hans Knoll Furniture
Company, and together they toured the country promoting Risom's designs.
A true minimalist, Risom worked mainly in wood because it was cheap,
and one of his most successful pieces, Knoll Chair #654 (which is still
being manufactured)[40] was made with a seat of nylon webbing that had
been discarded by the army. Other contributors Many other designers and cabinetmakers contributed to the Danish modern scene. Several worked in partnerships, including:[41] Tove and Edvard Kindt-Larsen (1901–1982), both students of Kaare Klint, working with contrasting materials[42] Peter Hvidt (1916–1986) and Orla Mølgaard-Nielsen (1907–1993), remembered for the Ax Chair (1950) and the X Chair (1960) Ejner Larsen (1917–1987) and Aksel Bender Madsen (1916–2000) working mainly with teak and rosewood Preben Fabricius (1931–1984) and Jørgen Kastholm (1938–2007), demonstrating originality with their Horseshoe Chair (1962) A number of cabinetmakers also developed skills in design. They include: Jacob Kjær (1896–1957), famous for his FN Chair, who also produced the furniture he designed Frits Henningsen (c. 1900 – c. 1970), who designed models produced at his own workshop in Copenhagen[43] Several other individuals made important contributions: Mogens Koch (1898–1992), remembered for his bookcases (1928) and folding chair (1932) Jørgen Gammelgaard (1938–1991), known for his Tip-Top lamp series. Rigmor Andersen (1903–1995), a versatile designer, maintaining the strict traditions of Klint's furniture school.[44] Peder Moos (1906–1991), designed and built individual pieces on request, with his own special finish[45] Kurt Østervig (1912–1986), trained in Odense, designed furniture for ships and cinemas as well as for the home.[46] Helge Vestergaard Jensen (1917–1987), who produced the Daybed (1955)
Hans Olsen (1919–1992), who experimented with materials and form,
creating a number of items in his own distinctive style.[47] Nanna Ditzel (1923–2005), pioneering new materials and production techniques, also working with textiles and jewelry Poul Volther (1923–2001), remembered above all for his iconic Corona Chair.[48]
Arne Vodder (1926–2009), a close friend and partner of Finn Juhl, his
furniture sold particularly well in the United States.[49] Bodil
Kjær (born 1932), architect and interior designer who created a
successful series of office furniture in the 1960s.[50] Bernt
Petersen (born 1937), notable for his small, light stool (1959) with
beautifully shaped legs and for his seating in theatres and concert
halls.[51] A number of Danish textile designers worked closely
with furniture designers to help shape the look of Danish modernism, for
example by creating textiles for cushions, sofas, and beds. These
include Lis Ahlmann and Vibeke Klint, among others. Danish Modern chairs at the Danish Design Center in Copenhagen In popular culture The Cat Who Ate Danish Modern (1967): The second novel of American writer Lilian Jackson Braun's The Cat Who...
In The Brady Bunch Season 2, Episode 18 — in "Our Son, the Man" the
family house's den is referred to as being Danish modern. In
House, M.D. Season 3, Episode 6 — in "Que Sera Sera" House's interior
design preferences (as well as his patient, George's) are called Danish
modern." (wikipedia.org) "Modernism
is both a philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad
transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms
of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly
emerging industrial world, including features such as urbanization,
architecture, new technologies, and war. Artists attempted to depart
from traditional forms of art, which they considered outdated or
obsolete. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it New" was the
touchstone of the movement's approach. Modernist innovations
included abstract art, the stream-of-consciousness novel, montage
cinema, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and modern
architecture. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of
realism[a][2][3] and made use of the works of the past by the employment
of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and
parody.[b][c][4] Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment
thinking, and many modernists also rejected religious belief.[5][d] A
notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness concerning
artistic and social traditions, which often led to experimentation with
form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the
processes and materials used in creating works of art.[7] While
some scholars see modernism continuing into the 21st century, others see
it evolving into late modernism or high modernism.[8] Postmodernism is a
departure from modernism and rejects its basic assumptions.[9][10][11] Definition Some
commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more
philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or
self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the
disciplines.[12] More common, especially in the West, are those who see
it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of
human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment with the
aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or
technology.[e] From this perspective, modernism encouraged the
re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to
philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was holding back
progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. According
to Roger Griffin, modernism can be defined as a broad cultural, social,
or political initiative, sustained by the ethos of "the temporality of
the new". Modernism sought to restore, Griffin writes, a "sense of
sublime order and purpose to the contemporary world, thereby
counteracting the (perceived) erosion of an overarching 'nomos', or
'sacred canopy', under the fragmenting and secularizing impact of
modernity." Therefore, phenomena apparently unrelated to each other such
as "Expressionism, Futurism, vitalism, Theosophy, psychoanalysis,
nudism, eugenics, utopian town planning and architecture, modern dance,
Bolshevism, organic nationalism – and even the cult of self-sacrifice
that sustained the hecatomb of the First World War – disclose a common
cause and psychological matrix in the fight against (perceived)
decadence." All of them embody bids to access a "supra-personal
experience of reality", in which individuals believed they could
transcend their own mortality, and eventually that they had ceased to be
victims of history to become instead its creators.... In the 1960s after abstract expressionism Main articles: Post-painterly abstraction, Color field, Lyrical abstraction, Arte Povera, Process art, and Western painting In
abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions
like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began
to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a
reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement
Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly abstraction when he curated
an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art
museums throughout the United States in 1964. color field painting,
hard-edge painting and lyrical abstraction[120] emerged as radical new
directions. By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process
art and Arte Povera[121] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and
movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical
abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual
art.[121] Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to
experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style,
content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space.
Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis
Kounellis, Brice Marden, Colin McCahon, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle,
Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry
Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Pat
Lipsky, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the
younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that
spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[122] Pop art Eduardo
Paolozzi. I was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947) is considered the initial
standard bearer of "pop art" and first to display the word "pop". Main articles: Pop art and Western painting In
1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major
pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City.
Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his
gallery. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and
reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art"
was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated the
consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected
abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and
psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often
celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and the iconography
of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the
works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the
groundbreaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) are considered
seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in
New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating
an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and
the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom
Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works
of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy
Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between
the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists
with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy
Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of
Ben-Day dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. Minimalism Main articles: Minimalism, Minimal music, Literary minimalism, Postminimalism, and 20th-century Western painting Minimalism
describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially
visual art and music, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or
identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms,
features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the
simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect. As
a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in
post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts
in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this
movement include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin,
Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[123] It
derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted
as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to
Postminimal art practices. By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an
abstract movement in art (with roots in the geometric abstraction of
Kazimir Malevich,[124] the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the
idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract
expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present
in the arena of action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme
simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in
art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to
postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter
perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced Modernist works, but the
movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like
Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement. Hal
Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[125] examines the extent
to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed
Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of
minimalism.[125] He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of
Modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that
continue to be elaborated today."" (wikipedia.org) "A
sunburst is a design or figure commonly used in architectural ornaments
and design patterns and possibly pattern books. It consists of rays or
"beams" radiating out from a central disk in the manner of sunbeams.[1]
Sometimes part of a sunburst, a semicircular or semi-elliptical shape,
is used. Traditional sunburst motifs usually show the rays narrowing as
they get further from the centre; from the later 19th century they often
get wider, as in the Japanese Rising Sun Flag, which is more
appropriate in optical terms. In architecture, the sunburst is
often used in window designs, including fanlights and rose windows, as
well as in decorative motifs. The sunburst motif is characteristic of
Baroque church metalwork, especially monstrances and votive crowns, and
Art Deco and Art Nouveau styles as well as church architecture. A
sunburst is frequently used in emblems and military decorations. Sunbursts
can appear in photographs when taking a picture of the Sun through the
diaphragm of a lens set to a narrow aperture due to diffraction; the
effect is often called a sunstar.[2] In information
visualization, a sunburst diagram or sunburst chart is a multilevel pie
chart used to represent the proportion of different values found at each
level in a hierarchy. Badges The sunburst was the badge of king Edward III of England, and has thus become the badge of office of Windsor Herald. Gallery A traditional "solar" monstrance A traditional "solar" monstrance Baroque sunburst crown on a Spanish statue of the Virgin Mary Baroque sunburst crown on a Spanish statue of the Virgin Mary Sunburst chart representing disk usage in a file system Sunburst chart representing disk usage in a file system War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (army's version of the Rising Sun Flag) War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (army's version of the Rising Sun Flag) Blue Sky with a White Sun, flag of the Chinese Nationalist Party Blue Sky with a White Sun, flag of the Chinese Nationalist Party The Star of India, official emblem of British India The Star of India, official emblem of British India Terra cotta sunburst art deco design in gold at the Eastern Columbia Building in Los Angeles Terra cotta sunburst art deco design in gold at the Eastern Columbia Building in Los Angeles Bottom of stairs, Burbank City Hall, Burbank, California Bottom of stairs, Burbank City Hall, Burbank, California Chrysler Building top Chrysler Building top Traditional Irish sunburst flag, used since the 18th century and associated with the mythical warriors, the Fianna Traditional Irish sunburst flag, used since the 18th century and associated with the mythical warriors, the Fianna Modern sunburst flag, used by Irish nationalist groups Modern sunburst flag, used by Irish nationalist groups" (wikipedai.org) "In
geometry, a star polygon is a type of non-convex polygon. Regular star
polygons have been studied in depth; while star polygons in general
appear not to have been formally defined, certain notable ones can arise
through truncation operations on regular simple and star polygons. Branko
Grünbaum identified two primary definitions used by Johannes Kepler,
one being the regular star polygons with intersecting edges that don't
generate new vertices, and the second being simple isotoxal concave
polygons.[1] The first usage is included in polygrams which includes polygons like the pentagram but also compound figures like the hexagram. One
definition of a star polygon, used in turtle graphics, is a polygon
having 2 or more turns (turning number and density), like in
spirolaterals.[2] Names Star polygon names combine a numeral
prefix, such as penta-, with the Greek suffix -gram (in this case
generating the word pentagram). The prefix is normally a Greek cardinal,
but synonyms using other prefixes exist. For example, a nine-pointed
polygon or enneagram is also known as a nonagram, using the ordinal nona
from Latin.[citation needed] The -gram suffix derives from γραμμή
(grammḗ) meaning a line.[3] Regular star polygon Further information: Regular polygon § Regular star polygons Regular star polygon 5-2.svg {5/2} Regular star polygon 7-2.svg {7/2} Regular star polygon 7-3.svg {7/3}... Regular convex and star polygons with 3 to 12 vertices labelled with their Schläfli symbols A "regular star polygon" is a self-intersecting, equilateral equiangular polygon. A
regular star polygon is denoted by its Schläfli symbol {p/q}, where p
(the number of vertices) and q (the density) are relatively prime (they
share no factors) and q ≥ 2. The density of a polygon can also be called
its turning number, the sum of the turn angles of all the vertices
divided by 360°. The symmetry group of {n/k} is dihedral group Dn of order 2n, independent of k. Regular star polygons were first studied systematically by Thomas Bradwardine, and later Johannes Kepler.[4] Construction via vertex connection Regular
star polygons can be created by connecting one vertex of a simple,
regular, p-sided polygon to another, non-adjacent vertex and continuing
the process until the original vertex is reached again.[5] Alternatively
for integers p and q, it can be considered as being constructed by
connecting every qth point out of p points regularly spaced in a
circular placement.[6] For instance, in a regular pentagon, a
five-pointed star can be obtained by drawing a line from the first to
the third vertex, from the third vertex to the fifth vertex, from the
fifth vertex to the second vertex, from the second vertex to the fourth
vertex, and from the fourth vertex to the first vertex. If q is
greater than half of p, then the construction will result in the same
polygon as p-q; connecting every third vertex of the pentagon will yield
an identical result to that of connecting every second vertex. However,
the vertices will be reached in the opposite direction, which makes a
difference when retrograde polygons are incorporated in
higher-dimensional polytopes. For example, an antiprism formed from a
prograde pentagram {5/2} results in a pentagrammic antiprism; the
analogous construction from a retrograde "crossed pentagram" {5/3}
results in a pentagrammic crossed-antiprism. Another example is the
tetrahemihexahedron, which can be seen as a "crossed triangle" {3/2}
cuploid. Degenerate regular star polygons If p and q are not
coprime, a degenerate polygon will result with coinciding vertices and
edges. For example {6/2} will appear as a triangle, but can be labeled
with two sets of vertices 1-6. This should be seen not as two
overlapping triangles, but a double-winding of a single unicursal
hexagon.[7][8] Doubly wound hexagon.svg Construction via stellation Alternatively,
a regular star polygon can also be obtained as a sequence of
stellations of a convex regular core polygon. Constructions based on
stellation also allow for regular polygonal compounds to be obtained in
cases where the density and amount of vertices are not coprime. When
constructing star polygons from stellation, however, if q is greater
than p/2, the lines will instead diverge infinitely, and if q is equal
to p/2, the lines will be parallel, with both resulting in no further
intersection in Euclidean space. However, it may be possible to
construct some such polygons in spherical space, similarly to the
monogon and digon; such polygons do not yet appear to have been studied
in detail. Simple isotoxal star polygons When the intersecting
lines are removed, the star polygons are no longer regular, but can be
seen as simple concave isotoxal 2n-gons, alternating vertices at two
different radii, which do not necessarily have to match the regular star
polygon angles. Branko Grünbaum in Tilings and Patterns represents
these stars as |n/d| that match the geometry of polygram {n/d} with a
notation {nα} more generally, representing an n-sided star with each
internal angle α<180°(1-2/n) degrees.[1] For |n/d|, the inner
vertices have an exterior angle, β, as 360°(d-1)/n. Simple isotoxal star examples |n/d| {nα} {330°} {630°} |5/2| {536°} {445°} |8/3| {845°} |6/2| {660°} {572°} α 30° 36° 45° 60° 72° β 150° 90° 72° 135° 90° 120° 144° Isotoxal star
Isotoxal star triangle 12-5.svg Isotoxal star hexagon 12-5.png
Stjärna.svg Isotoxal square star 8-3.svg Octagonal star.png
Roundel of Israel – Low Visibility – Type 2.svg Wide
pentagram.png Related polygram {n/d} Regular star polygon 12-5.svg {12/5} Alfkors.svg {5/2} Regular star polygon 8-3.svg {8/3} Hexagram.svg 2{3} Star figure Decagram 10 3.png {10/3} Examples in tilings Further information: Uniform tiling § Uniform tilings using star polygons These
polygons are often seen in tiling patterns. The parametric angle α
(degrees or radians) can be chosen to match internal angles of
neighboring polygons in a tessellation pattern. Johannes Kepler in his
1619 work Harmonices Mundi, including among other period tilings,
nonperiodic tilings like that three regular pentagons, and a regular
star pentagon (5.5.5.5/2) can fit around a vertex, and related to modern
Penrose tilings.[9] Example tilings with isotoxal star polygons[10] Star triangles Star squares Star hexagons Star octagons Triangle and triangular star tiling.png (3.3* α.3.3** α) Octagon star square tiling.png (8.4* π/4.8.4* π/4) Hexagon hexagram tiling.png (6.6* π/3.6.6* π/3) Gyrated truncated hexagonal tiling2.png (3.6* π/3.6** π/3) Trihexagonal tiling stars.png (3.6.6* π/3.6) Hexagon hexagram tiling2.png Not edge-to-edge Interiors This
section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove
this template message) The interior of a star polygon may be
treated in different ways. Three such treatments are illustrated for a
pentagram. Branko Grünbaum and Geoffrey Shephard consider two of them,
as regular star polygons and concave isogonal 2n-gons.[9] Pentagram interpretations.svg These include:
Where a side occurs, one side is treated as outside and the other as
inside. This is shown in the left hand illustration and commonly occurs
in computer vector graphics rendering. The number of times that
the polygonal curve winds around a given region determines its density.
The exterior is given a density of 0, and any region of density > 0
is treated as internal. This is shown in the central illustration and
commonly occurs in the mathematical treatment of polyhedra. (However,
for non-orientable polyhedra density can only be considered modulo 2 and
hence the first treatment is sometimes used instead in those cases for
consistency.) Where a line may be drawn between two sides, the
region in which the line lies is treated as inside the figure. This is
shown in the right hand illustration and commonly occurs when making a
physical model. When the area of the polygon is calculated, each of these approaches yields a different answer. In art and culture Main article: Star polygons in art and culture This
section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove
this template message) Star polygons feature prominently in art
and culture. Such polygons may or may not be regular but they are always
highly symmetrical. Examples include: The {5/2} star
pentagon (pentagram) is also known as a pentalpha or pentangle, and
historically has been considered by many magical and religious cults to
have occult significance. The {7/2} and {7/3} star polygons (heptagrams) also have occult significance, particularly in the Kabbalah and in Wicca.
The {8/3} star polygon (octagram) is a frequent geometrical motif in
Mughal Islamic art and architecture; the first is on the emblem of
Azerbaijan. An eleven pointed star called the hendecagram was used on the tomb of Shah Nemat Ollah Vali." (wikipedia.org) "A
Moravian star (German: Herrnhuter Stern) is an illuminated Advent,
Christmas, or Epiphany decoration popular in Germany and in places in
Europe and America where there are Moravian congregations, notably the
Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania and the area surrounding Winston-Salem,
North Carolina. The stars take their English name from the Moravian
Church, originating in Moravia. In Germany, they are known as Herrnhut
stars, named after the Moravian Mother Community in Saxony, Germany,
where they were first commercially produced. History The first
Moravian star is known to have originated in the 1830s at the Moravian
Boys' School in Niesky, Germany, as a geometry lesson or project. The
first mention is of a 110-point star for the 50th anniversary of the
Paedagogium (classical school for boys) in Niesky. Around 1880, Peter
Verbeek, an alumnus of the school, began making the stars and their
instructions available for sale through his bookstore.[1][2] His son
Harry went on to found the Herrnhut Star Factory, which was the main
source of stars until World War I. Although heavily damaged at the end
of World War II, the Star Factory resumed manufacturing them. Briefly
taken over by the government of East Germany in the 1950s, the factory
was returned to the Moravian Church-owned Abraham Dürninger Company,
which continues to make the stars in Herrnhut.[citation needed] Other
star-making companies and groups have sprung up since then. Some
Moravian congregations have congregation members who build and sell the
stars as fund raisers. Cultural importance The star was soon
adopted throughout the Moravian Church as an Advent symbol. At the time,
Moravian congregations were inhabited exclusively by Moravians and the
church owned and controlled all property. Daily life was centered on
their Christian faith and there was no distinction between the secular
and the sacred, even in their daily activities. Everything was
considered worship. It did not take long for the stars to go from a
pastime for children to an occupation for the congregation. Moravian
stars continue to be a popular Advent, Christmas, and Epiphany
decoration throughout the world, even in areas without a significant
Moravian Church presence. The stars are often seen in Moravian nativity
and Christmas village displays as a representation of the Star of
Bethlehem. They are properly displayed from the first Sunday in Advent
(the fourth Sunday before Christmas) until the Festival of Epiphany
(January 6). Large advent stars shine in the dome of the Frauenkirche in
Dresden and over the altar of the Thomaskirche in Leipzig. The city of
Winston-Salem, North Carolina, which traces its origins to Salem has
Moravian origins dating to 1766, uses the Moravian star as their
official Christmas street decoration. In addition, a 9.5-meter or
31-foot Moravian star, one of the largest in the world, sits atop the
North Tower of Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center during the Advent and
Christmas seasons.[3] Another star sits under Wake Forest University's
Wait Chapel during the Advent and Christmas seasons as well. The
use of the stars during the Advent, Christmas, and Epiphany seasons is
also a tradition in the West Indies, Greenland, Suriname, Labrador,
Central America, South and East Africa, Ladakh in India, and in parts of
Scandinavia: wherever the Moravian Church has sent missionaries. Types of stars Augmented rhombicuboctahedron (26-points) The
original Moravian star as manufactured in Herrnhut since 1897 exists
only in a 26-point form, composed of eighteen square and eight
triangular cone-shaped points.[4] The 26th point is missing and used for
mounting. This shape is technically known as an augmented
rhombicuboctahedron. Each face of the geometric solid in the middle, the
rhombicuboctahedron, serves as the base for one of the pyramid
augmentations or starburst points. This is the most commonly seen and
most widely available form of Christmas star. Other forms of
Christmas star exist, which differ from the original Herrnhut Moravian
star. No matter how many points a star has, it has a symmetrical shape
based on polyhedra. There are other stars with 20, 32, 50, 62 and 110
points that are commonly hand-made. The variety comes from various ways
of forming the polyhedron that provides a base for the points—using an
octagonal face instead of a square face, for example. The common
original Herrnhut Moravian star becomes a 50-point star when the squares
and triangles that normally make up the faces of the polyhedron become
octagons and hexagons. This leaves a 4-sided trapezoidal hole in the
corners of the faces which is then filled with an irregular four sided
point. These 4-sided points form a "starburst" in the midst of an
otherwise regular 26-point star. Froebel stars, which are paper
decorations made from four folded strips of paper, are sometimes
inaccurately also called Moravian stars, among many other names."
(wikipedia.org) "Art
Deco, short for the French Arts Décoratifs, and sometimes just called
Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design, that
first appeared in France in the 1910s (just before World War I),[1] and
flourished in the United States and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s.
Through styling and design of the exterior and interior of anything from
large structures to small objects, including how people look (clothing,
fashion and jewelry), Art Deco has influenced bridges, buildings (from
skyscrapers to cinemas), ships, ocean liners, trains, cars, trucks,
buses, furniture, and everyday objects like radios and vacuum
cleaners.[2] It got its name after the 1925 Exposition
internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes
(International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held
in Paris.[3] Art Deco combined modern styles with fine
craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, it represented
luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological
progress. From its outset, Art Deco was influenced by the bold
geometric forms of Cubism and the Vienna Secession; the bright colours
of Fauvism and of the Ballets Russes; the updated craftsmanship of the
furniture of the eras of Louis XVI and Louis Philippe I; and the
exoticized styles of China, Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt and Maya
art. It featured rare and expensive materials, such as,
and exquisite craftsmanship. The Empire State Building, Chrysler
Building, and other skyscrapers of New York City built during the 1920s
and 1930s are monuments to the style. In the 1930s, during the
Great Depression, Art Deco became more subdued. New materials arrived,
including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic. A sleeker form of
the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, featuring
curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces.[4] Art Deco is one of the
first truly international styles, but its dominance ended with the
beginning of World War II and the rise of the strictly functional and
unadorned styles of modern architecture and the International Style of
architecture that followed.[5] Etymology Art Deco took its
name, short for arts décoratifs, from the Exposition Internationale des
Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925,[3] though
the diverse styles that characterised it had already appeared in Paris
and Brussels before World War I. Arts décoratifs was first used
in France in 1858 in the Bulletin de la Société française de
photographie.[6] In 1868, the Le Figaro newspaper used the term objets
d'art décoratifs for objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre
de l'Opéra.[7][8][9] In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewellers,
glass-workers, and other craftsmen were officially given the status of
artists by the French government. In response, the École royale gratuite
de dessin (Royal Free School of Design), founded in 1766 under King
Louis XVI to train artists and artisans in crafts relating to the fine
arts, was renamed the École nationale des arts décoratifs (National
School of Decorative Arts). It took its present name, ENSAD (École
nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs), in 1927. At the 1925
Exposition, architect Le Corbusier wrote a series of articles about the
exhibition for his magazine L'Esprit Nouveau, under the title "1925
EXPO. ARTS. DÉCO.", which were combined into a book, L'art décoratif
d'aujourd'hui (Decorative Art Today). The book was a spirited attack on
the excesses of the colourful, lavish objects at the Exposition, and on
the idea that practical objects such as furniture should not have any
decoration at all; his conclusion was that "Modern decoration has no
decoration".[10] The actual term art déco did not appear in print
until 1966, in the title of the first modern exhibition on the subject,
held by the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris, Les Années 25 : Art
déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau, which covered the variety of major
styles in the 1920s and 1930s.[11] The term was then used in a 1966
newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in The Times (London, 12 November),
describing the different styles at the exhibit.[12] Art Deco
gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when
historian Bevis Hillier published the first major academic book on it,
Art Deco of the 20s and 30s.[2] He noted that the term was already being
used by art dealers, and cites The Times (2 November 1966) and an essay
named Les Arts Déco in Elle magazine (November 1967) as examples.[13]
In 1971, he organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of
Arts, which he details in his book The World of Art Deco.[14][15] Origins Society of Decorative Artists (1901–1945) The
emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of
decorative artists, who until late in the 19th century were considered
simply as artisans. The term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875,
giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration
official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs (Society of
Decorative Artists), or SAD, was founded in 1901, and decorative artists
were given the same rights of authorship as painters and sculptors. A
similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition
devoted entirely to the decorative arts, the Esposizione Internazionale
d'Arte Decorativa Moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new
magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including
Arts et décoration and L'Art décoratif moderne. Decorative arts sections
were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes
français, and later in the Salon d'Automne. French nationalism also
played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, as French designers
felt challenged by the increasing exports of less expensive German
furnishings. In 1911, SAD proposed a major new international exposition
of decorative arts in 1912. No copies of old styles would be permitted,
only modern works. The exhibit was postponed until 1914; and then,
because of the war, until 1925, when it gave its name to the whole
family of styles known as "Déco".... Decoration and motifs Iron fireplace screen, Rose Iron Works (Cleveland, Ohio) (1930) Iron fireplace screen, Rose Iron Works (Cleveland, Ohio) (1930) Elevator doors of the Chrysler Building (New York City, N.Y.), by William Van Alen (1927–30) Elevator doors of the Chrysler Building (New York City, N.Y.), by William Van Alen (1927–30) Sunrise motif from the Wisconsin Gas Building (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) (1930) Sunrise motif from the Wisconsin Gas Building (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) (1930) Detail of mosaic facade of Paramount Theatre (Oakland, California) (1931) Detail of mosaic facade of Paramount Theatre (Oakland, California) (1931) Decoration
in the Art Deco period went through several distinct phases. Between
1910 and 1920, as Art Nouveau was exhausted, design styles saw a return
to tradition, particularly in the work of Paul Iribe. In 1912 André Vera
published an essay in the magazine L'Art Décoratif calling for a return
to the craftsmanship and materials of earlier centuries, and using a
new repertoire of forms taken from nature, particularly baskets and
garlands of fruit and flowers. A second tendency of Art Deco, also from
1910 to 1920, was inspired by the bright colours of the artistic
movement known as the Fauves and by the colourful costumes and sets of
the Ballets Russes. This style was often expressed with exotic materials
such as sharkskin, mother of pearl, tinted leather, lacquered
and painted wood, and decorative inlays on furniture that emphasized its
geometry. This period of the style reached its high point in the 1925
Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts. In the late 1920s and the 1930s,
the decorative style changed, inspired by new materials and
technologies. It became sleeker and less ornamental. Furniture, like
architecture, began to have rounded edges and to take on a polished,
streamlined look, taken from the streamline modern style. New materials,
such as nickel or chrome-plated steel, aluminium and bakelite, an early
form of plastic, began to appear in furniture and decoration.[103] Throughout
the Art Deco period, and particularly in the 1930s, the motifs of the
décor expressed the function of the building. Theatres were decorated
with sculpture which illustrated music, dance, and excitement; power
companies showed sunrises, the Chrysler building showed stylized hood
ornaments; The friezes of Palais de la Porte Dorée at the 1931 Paris
Colonial Exposition showed the faces of the different nationalities of
French colonies. The Streamline style made it appear that the building
itself was in motion. The WPA murals of the 1930s featured ordinary
people; factory workers, postal workers, families and farmers, in place
of classical heroes.... Streamline
was a variety of Art Deco which emerged during the mid-1930s. It was
influenced by modern aerodynamic principles developed for aviation and
ballistics to reduce aerodynamic drag at high velocities. The bullet
shapes were applied by designers to cars, trains, ships, and even
objects not intended to move, such as refrigerators, gas pumps, and
buildings.[60] One of the first production vehicles in this style was
the Chrysler Airflow of 1933. It was unsuccessful commercially, but the
beauty and functionality of its design set a precedent; meant modernity.
It continued to be used in car design well after World War
II.[113][114][115][116] New industrial materials began to
influence the design of cars and household objects. These included
aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic. Bakelite
could be easily moulded into different forms, and soon was used in
telephones, radios and other appliances. Grand dining room of the ocean liner SS Normandie by Pierre Patout (1935); bas-reliefs by Raymond Delamarre Ocean
liners also adopted a style of Art Deco, known in French as the Style
Paquebot, or "Ocean Liner Style". The most famous example was the SS
Normandie, which made its first transatlantic trip in 1935. It was
designed particularly to bring wealthy Americans to Paris to shop. The
cabins and salons featured the latest Art Deco furnishings and
decoration. The Grand Salon of the ship, which was the restaurant for
first-class passengers, was bigger than the Hall of Mirrors of the
Palace of Versailles. It was illuminated by electric lights within
twelve pillars of Lalique crystal; thirty-six matching pillars lined the
walls. This was one of the earliest examples of illumination being
directly integrated into architecture. The style of ships was soon
adapted to buildings. A notable example is found on the San Francisco
waterfront, where the Maritime Museum building, built as a public bath
in 1937, resembles a ferryboat, with ship railings and rounded corners.
The Star Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong also used a variation of the
style." (wikipedia.org) "Wood
is a structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other
woody plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of
cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of
lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the
secondary xylem in the stems of trees,[1] or it is defined more broadly
to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of
trees or shrubs.[citation needed] In a living tree it performs a support
function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by
themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves,
other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant
materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from
wood, or woodchips or fiber. Wood has been used for thousands of
years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and
weapons, furniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock
for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as
cellophane and cellulose acetate. As of 2020, the growing stock
of forests worldwide was about 557 billion cubic meters.[2] As an
abundant, carbon-neutral[3] renewable resource, woody materials have
been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 2008,
approximately 3.97 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested.[2]
Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.[4] History A
2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick yielded the
earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400
million years ago.[5][6] Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in some species by dendrochronology to determine when a wooden object was created. People
have used wood for thousands of years for many purposes, including as a
fuel or as a construction material for making houses, tools, weapons,
furniture, packaging, artworks, and paper. Known constructions using
wood date back ten thousand years. Buildings like the European Neolithic
long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has been enhanced by the addition of steel and bronze into construction.[7] The
year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances
gives clues to the prevailing climate at the time a tree was cut.... Color The wood of coast redwood is distinctively red. In
species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood
the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the
sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous (see section of
yew log above). This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of
chemical substances, so that a dramatic color variation does not imply a
significant difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and
sapwood, although there may be a marked biochemical difference between
the two. Some experiments on very resinous longleaf pine
specimens indicate an increase in strength, due to the resin which
increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is
called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost
impervious to rot and termites, and very flammable. Tree stumps of old
longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as
kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or
more since being cut. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is
also greatly increased in strength thereby. Since the latewood of
a growth ring is usually darker in color than the earlywood, this fact
may be used in visually judging the density, and therefore the hardness
and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with
coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood
often appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser latewood,
though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true.
Otherwise the color of wood is no indication of strength. Abnormal
discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating
unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect
attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain
other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration
is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of
itself affect the properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi
impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of
weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungal growth, but does not
necessarily produce a weakening effect.... Engineered products Main article: Engineered wood Engineered
wood products, glued building products "engineered" for
application-specific performance requirements, are often used in
construction and industrial applications. Glued engineered wood products
are manufactured by bonding together wood strands, veneers, lumber or
other forms of wood fiber with glue to form a larger, more efficient
composite structural unit.[44] These products include glued
laminated timber (glulam), wood structural panels (including plywood,
oriented strand board and composite panels), laminated veneer lumber
(LVL) and other structural composite lumber (SCL) products, parallel
strand lumber, and I-joists.[44] Approximately 100 million cubic meters
of wood was consumed for this purpose in 1991.[4] The trends suggest
that particle board and fiber board will overtake plywood. Wood
unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down
mechanically (into fibers or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and
used as a raw material for other building materials, such as engineered
wood, as well as chipboard, hardboard, and medium-density fiberboard
(MDF). Such wood derivatives are widely used: wood fibers are an
important component of most paper, and cellulose is used as a component
of some synthetic materials. Wood derivatives can be used for kinds of
flooring, for example laminate flooring. ... Wood-plastic
composites (WPCs) are composite materials made of wood fiber/wood flour
and thermoplastic(s) such as polythene (PE), polypropylene (PP),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or polylactic acid (PLA). In addition
to wood fiber and plastic, WPCs can also contain other ligno-cellulosic
and/or inorganic filler materials. WPCs are a subset of a larger
category of materials called natural fiber plastic composites (NFPCs),
which may contain no cellulose-based fiber fillers such as pulp fibers,
peanut hulls, coffee husk, bamboo, straw, digestate, etc. Chemical additives provide for integration of polymer and wood flour (powder) while facilitating optimal processing conditions. History The
company that invented and patented the process to create WPC was Covema
of Milan in 1960, founded by Terragni brothers (Dino and Marco). Covema
called WPC under the tradename Plastic-Wood.[1][2] After a few years
from the invention of the Plastic-Wood the company Icma San Giorgio
patented the first process to add wood fiber/wood flour to the
thermoplastics (WPCs).[3] Uses Also sometimes known as
Composite Timber, WPCs are still new materials relative to the long
history of natural lumber as a building material. The most widespread
use of WPCs in North America is in outdoor deck floors, but it is also
used for railings, fences, landscaping timbers, cladding and siding,
park benches, molding and trim, prefab houses under the tradename
Woodpecker WPC.,[4] window and door frames, and indoor furniture.[5]
WPCs were first introduced into the decking market in the early 1990s.
Manufacturers[6][7][8][9][10] claim that WPC is more environmentally
friendly and requires less maintenance than the alternatives of solid
wood treated with preservatives or solid wood of rot-resistant species.
These materials can be molded with or without simulated wood grain
details.[11] Production The first extrusion line to produce Plastic Wood, made by Covema WPCs
are produced by thoroughly mixing ground wood particles and heated
thermoplastic resin. The most common method of production is to extrude
the material into the desired shape, though injection molding is also
used. WPCs may be produced from either virgin or recycled thermoplastics
including high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene
(LDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), polystyrene (PS), and polylactic acid (PLA).
PE-based WPCs are by far the most common. Additives such as colorants,
coupling agents, UV stabilizers, blowing agents, foaming agents, and
lubricants help tailor the end product to the target area of
application. Extruded WPCs are formed into both solid and hollow
profiles. A large variety of injection molded parts are also produced,
from automotive door panels to cell phone covers. In some
manufacturing facilities, the constituents are combined and processed in
a pelletizing extruder, which produces pellets of the new material. The
pellets are then re-melted and formed into the final shape. Other
manufacturers complete the finished part in a single step of mixing and
extrusion.[12] Due to the addition of organic material, WPCs are
usually processed at far lower temperatures than traditional plastics
during extrusion and injection molding. WPCs tend to process at
temperatures of about 28 °C (50 °F) lower than the same, unfilled
material, for instance. Most will begin to burn at temperatures around
204 °C (400 °F).[13] Processing WPCs at excessively high temperatures
increases the risk of shearing, or burning and discoloration resulting
from pushing a material that is too hot through a gate which is too
small, during injection molding. The ratio of wood to plastic in the
composite will ultimately determine the melt flow index (MFI) of the
WPC, with larger amounts of wood generally leading to a lower MFI. Wood-plastic composite is a type of engineered wood. Advantages and disadvantages Trex Composite Decking WPCs
do not corrode and are highly resistant to rot, decay, and marine borer
attack, though they do absorb water into the wood fibers embedded
within the material.[14] Water absorption is more pronounced in WFCs
with a hydrophilic matrix such as PLA and also leads to decreased
mechanical stiffness and strength.[15] The mechanical performance in a
wet environment can be enhanced by an acetylation treatment.[16] WPCs
have good workability and can be shaped using conventional woodworking
tools. WPCs are often considered a sustainable material because they can
be made using recycled plastics and the waste products of the wood
industry. Although these materials continue the lifespan of used and
discarded materials, they have their own considerable half life; the
polymers and adhesives added make WPC difficult to recycle again after
use.[17] They can however be recycled easily in a new WPC, much like
concrete. One advantage over wood is the ability of the material to be
molded to meet almost any desired shape. A WPC member can be bent and
fixed to form strong arching curves. Another major selling point of
these materials is their lack of need for paint. They are manufactured
in a variety of colors, but are widely available in grays and earth
tones. Despite up to 70 percent cellulose content (although 50/50 is
more common), the mechanical behavior of WPCs is most similar to neat
polymers. Neat polymers are polymerized without added solvents.[18][19]
This means that WPCs have a lower strength and stiffness than wood, and
they experience time and temperature-dependent behavior.[20] The wood
particles are susceptible to fungal attack, though not as much so as
solid wood, and the polymer component is vulnerable to UV
degradation.[21] It is possible that the strength and stiffness may be
reduced by freeze-thaw cycling, though testing is still being conducted
in this area. Some WPC formulations are sensitive to staining from a
variety of agents. WPC sandwich boards WPC boards show a good set
of performance but monolithic composite sheets are relatively heavy
(most often heavier than pure plastics) which limits their use to
applications where low weight is not essential. WPC in a
sandwich-structured composite form allows for a combination of the
benefits of traditional wood polymer composites with the lightness of a
sandwich panel technology. WPC sandwich boards consist of wood polymer
composite skins and usually low-density polymer core which leads to a
very effective increase of panel's rigidity. WPC sandwich boards are
used mainly in automotive, transportation and building applications, but
furniture applications are also being developed.[22] New efficient and
often in-line integrated production processes allow to produce stronger
and stiffer WPC sandwich boards at lower costs compared to traditional
plastic sheets or monolithic WPC panels." (wikipedia.org) "Danish
design is a style of functionalistic design and architecture that was
developed in mid-20th century. Influenced by the German Bauhaus school,
many Danish designers used the new industrial technologies, combined
with ideas of simplicity and functionalism to design buildings,
furniture and household objects, many of which have become iconic and
are still in use and production. Prominent examples are the Egg chair,
the PH lamps and the Sydney Opera House (Australia). History See also: Danish modern The
Danish Culture Canon credits Thorvald Bindesbøll (1846–1908) with early
contributions to design in the areas of ceramics, jewellery,
bookbinding, silver and furniture although he is known in the rest of
the world for creating the Carlsberg logo (1904), still in use today.[1]
The Canon also includes Knud V. Engelhardt (1882–1931) for a more
industrial approach, especially in the rounded contours of his electric
tramcar designs which were widely copied.[2] In the area of textiles,
Marie Gudme Leth (1895–1997) brought the screen printing process to
Denmark, opening a factory in 1935 which allowed her colourful patterns
to be manufactured on an industrial basis.[3] August Sandgren introduced
functionalism in the design of his masterful bookbindings. The forms and materials of Hans Wegner's Wishbone Chair are representative of the movement's aesthetic In
the late 1940s, shortly after the end of the Second World War,
conditions in Denmark were ideally suited to success in design. The
emphasis was on furniture but architecture, silver, ceramics, glass and
textiles also benefitted from the trend. Denmark's late
industrialisation combined with a tradition of high-quality
craftsmanship formed the basis of gradual progress towards industrial
production. After the end of the war, Europeans were keen to find novel
approaches such as the light wood furniture from Denmark. Last but not
least, support in Denmark for freedom of individual expression assisted
the cause.[4] The newly established Furniture School at the Royal
Danish Academy of Art played a considerable part in the development of
furniture design. Kaare Klint taught functionalism based on the size and
proportions of objects, wielding considerable influence. Hans J.
Wegner, who had been trained as a cabinetmaker, contributed with a
unique sense of form, especially in designing chairs.[5] As head
of FDB Møbler, Børge Mogensen designed simple and robust objects of
furniture for the average Danish family. Finn Juhl demonstrated an
individualistic approach in designing chairs with an appealing but
functional look. In the early 1950s, American design also
influenced Danish furniture. The American Charles Eames designed and
manufactured chairs of moulded wood and steel pipes. These encouraged
Arne Jacobsen to design his worldfamous Ant Chair, Denmark's first
industrially manufactured chair. Furthermore, as Shaker furniture—and
especially its reputation for stripped down chairs—began to be more and
more known abroad, it also influenced Danish designers.[6] Poul
Kjærholm, Verner Panton and Nanna Ditzel followed a few years later,
continuing the successful story of Danish design. Kjærholm worked mainly
in steel and leather, Panton left Denmark during the 1960s to continue
designing imaginative but highly unconventional plastic chairs while
Nanna Ditzel, who also had a strongly individualistic approach, was
successful in helping to renew Danish furniture design in the 1980s. Modern trends Bernadotte's thermos jug, 2004 During the 1970s, Verner Panton made some of his most important designs, including the Pantonova and the 1-2-3 System. Danish
furniture design during the 1980s did not include prominent
contributions. By contrast, industrial designers began to prosper,
making use of principles such as focus on the user, as well as attention
to materials and to detail. For example, there are well known Danish
designers, like Tobias Jacobsen (the grandson of Arne Jacobsen), who
focused on the single elements of a violin when creating his chair "Vio"
or on a boomerang when designing his eponymous sideboard.[7] The
Bernadotte & Bjørn studio, established in 1950, was the first to
specialise in industrial design, with an emphasis on office machines,
domestic appliances and functional articles such as the thermos jug. The
electronics manufacturer Bang & Olufsen, in collaboration with
Bernadotte & Bjørn and later with Jacob Jensen and David Lewis, went
on to excel in modern design work. Around the same time, the Stelton
company collaborated with Arne Jacobsen and Erik Magnussen to produce
their iconic vacuum jug, a huge international success. Another
successful design field is medical technology. Danish design companies
like 3PART, Designit and CBD have worked in this area with individual
designers such as Steve McGugan and Anders Smith. In 2002 the
Danish Government and the City of Copenhagen launched an effort to
establish a world event for design in Copenhagen. Originally understood
as a tool for branding traditional Danish design, the non-profit
organization INDEX: shifted focus after worldwide research and coined
the concept of Design to Improve Life, which rapidly became celebrated
in Denmark and around the world. The organization now hands out the
biggest design award in the world biannual in Copenhagen, tours large
scale outdoor exhibition around the world, run educational program as
well as design labs and hosts a global network.[citation needed] Today,
there is strong focus on design in Denmark as industry increasingly
appreciates the importance of design in the business environment. In
addition, as part of its trade and industry policy, the Danish
government has launched the DesignDenmark initiative which aims to
restore Denmark to the international design elite." (wikipedia.org) "Scandinavia[b]
(/ˌskændɪˈneɪviə/ SKAN-di-NAY-vee-ə) is a subregion in Northern Europe,
with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its
constituent peoples. Scandinavia most commonly refers to Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden. In English usage, it can sometimes also refer more
narrowly to the Scandinavian Peninsula (which excludes Denmark but
includes part of Finland), or more broadly to all of the Nordic
countries, also including Finland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands.[4][c] The
geography of the region is varied, from the Norwegian fjords in the
west and Scandinavian mountains covering parts of Norway and Sweden, to
the low and flat areas of Denmark in the south, as well as archipelagos
and lakes in the east. Most of the population in the region live in the
more temperate southern regions, with the northern parts having long,
cold, winters. The region became notable during the Viking Age,
when Scandinavian peoples participated in large-scale raiding, conquest,
colonization and trading mostly throughout Europe. They also used their
longships for exploration, becoming the first Europeans to reach North
America. These exploits saw the establishment of the North Sea Empire
which comprised large parts of Scandinavia and Great Britain, though it
was relatively short-lived. Scandinavia was eventually Christianized,
and the coming centuries saw various unions of Scandinavian nations,
most notably the Kalmar Union of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, which
lasted for over 100 years until the Swedish king Gustav I led Sweden to
independence. It also saw numerous wars between the nations, which
shaped the modern borders. The most recent union was the union between
Sweden and Norway, which ended in 1905. In modern times the
region has prospered, with the economies of the countries being amongst
the strongest in Europe. Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Finland
all maintain welfare systems considered to be generous, with the
economic and social policies of the countries being dubbed the "Nordic
model". Geography See also: Geography of Denmark, Geography of Finland, Geography of Iceland, Geography of Norway, and Geography of Sweden Galdhøpiggen is the highest point in Scandinavia and is a part of the Scandinavian Mountains. The
geography of Scandinavia is extremely varied. Notable are the Norwegian
fjords, the Scandinavian Mountains covering much of Norway and parts of
Sweden, the flat, low areas in Denmark and the archipelagos of Finland,
Norway and Sweden. Finland and Sweden have many lakes and moraines,
legacies of the ice age, which ended about ten millennia ago. The
southern regions of Scandinavia, which are also the most populous
regions, have a temperate climate.[5][6] Scandinavia extends north of
the Arctic Circle, but has relatively mild weather for its latitude due
to the Gulf Stream. Many of the Scandinavian mountains have an alpine
tundra climate. The climate varies from north to south and from
west to east: a marine west coast climate (Cfb) typical of western
Europe dominates in Denmark, the southernmost part of Sweden and along
the west coast of Norway reaching north to 65°N, with orographic lift
giving more mm/year precipitation (<5000 mm) in some areas in western
Norway. The central part – from Oslo to Stockholm – has a humid
continental climate (Dfb), which gradually gives way to subarctic
climate (Dfc) further north and cool marine west coast climate (Cfc)
along the northwestern coast.[7] A small area along the northern coast
east of the North Cape has tundra climate (Et) as a result of a lack of
summer warmth. The Scandinavian Mountains block the mild and moist air
coming from the southwest, thus northern Sweden and the Finnmarksvidda
plateau in Norway receive little precipitation and have cold winters.
Large areas in the Scandinavian mountains have alpine tundra climate. The
warmest temperature ever recorded in Scandinavia is 38.0 °C in Målilla
(Sweden).[8] The coldest temperature ever recorded is −52.6 °C in
Vuoggatjålme [sv], Arjeplog (Sweden).[9] The coldest month was February
1985 in Vittangi (Sweden) with a mean of −27.2 °C.[9] Southwesterly
winds further warmed by foehn wind can give warm temperatures in narrow
Norwegian fjords in winter. Tafjord has recorded 17.9 °C in January and
Sunndal 18.9 °C in February. Etymology Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to Scania, a formerly Danish region that became Swedish in the seventeenth century. The
original areas inhabited (during the Bronze Age) by the peoples now
known as Scandinavians included what is now Northern Germany
(particularly Schleswig-Holstein), all of Denmark, southern Sweden, the
southern coast of Norway and Åland in Finland while namesake Scania
found itself in the centre. The term Scandinavia in local usage
covers the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The majority
national languages of these three belong to the Scandinavian dialect
continuum, and are mutually intelligible North Germanic languages.[10] The
words Scandinavia and Scania (Skåne, the southernmost province of
Sweden) are both thought to go back to the Proto-Germanic compound
*Skaðin-awjō (the ð represented in Latin by t or d), which appears later
in Old English as Scedenig and in Old Norse as Skáney.[11] The earliest
identified source for the name Scandinavia is Pliny the Elder's Natural
History, dated to the first century AD. Various references to
the region can also be found in Pytheas, Pomponius Mela, Tacitus,
Ptolemy, Procopius and Jordanes, usually in the form of Scandza. It is
believed that the name used by Pliny may be of West Germanic origin,
originally denoting Scania.[12] According to some scholars, the Germanic
stem can be reconstructed as *skaðan-, meaning "danger" or
"damage".[13] The second segment of the name has been reconstructed as
*awjō, meaning "land on the water" or "island". The name Scandinavia
would then mean "dangerous island", which is considered to refer to the
treacherous sandbanks surrounding Scania.[13] Skanör in Scania, with its
long Falsterbo reef, has the same stem (skan) combined with -ör, which
means "sandbanks". Alternatively, Sca(n)dinavia and Skáney, along
with the Old Norse goddess name Skaði, may be related to Proto-Germanic
*skaðwa- (meaning "shadow"). John McKinnell comments that this
etymology suggests that the goddess Skaði may have once been a
personification of the geographical region of Scandinavia or associated
with the underworld.[14] Another possibility is that all or part
of the segments of the name came from the pre-Germanic Mesolithic people
inhabiting the region.[15] In modernity, Scandinavia is a peninsula,
but between approximately 10,300 and 9,500 years ago the southern part
of Scandinavia was an island separated from the northern peninsula, with
water exiting the Baltic Sea through the area where Stockholm is now
located.[16] Appearance in medieval Germanic languages The
Latin names in Pliny's text gave rise to different forms in medieval
Germanic texts. In Jordanes' history of the Goths (AD 551), the form
Scandza is the name used for their original home, separated by sea from
the land of Europe (chapter 1, 4).[17] Where Jordanes meant to locate
this quasi-legendary island is still a hotly debated issue, both in
scholarly discussions and in the nationalistic discourse of various
European countries.[18][19] The form Scadinavia as the original home of
the Langobards appears in Paul the Deacon' Historia Langobardorum,[20]
but in other versions of Historia Langobardorum appear the forms Scadan,
Scandanan, Scadanan and Scatenauge.[21] Frankish sources used Sconaowe
and Aethelweard, an Anglo-Saxon historian, used Scani.[22][23] In
Beowulf, the forms Scedenige and Scedeland are used while the Alfredian
translation of Orosius and Wulfstan's travel accounts used the Old
English Sconeg.[23] Possible influence on Sámi languages The
earliest Sámi joik texts written down refer to the world as
Skadesi-suolu in Northern Sámi) and Skađsuâl in Skolt Sámi, meaning
"Skaði's island". Svennung considers the Sámi name to have been
introduced as a loanword from the North Germanic languages;[24] "Skaði"
is the giant (jötunn) stepmother of Freyr and Freyja in Norse mythology.
It has been suggested that Skaði to some extent is modeled on a Sámi
woman. The name for Skade's father Þjazi is known in Sámi as Čáhci, "the
waterman"; and her son with Odin, Sæmingr, can be interpreted as a
descendant of Saam, the Sámi population.[25][26] Older joik texts give
evidence of the old Sámi belief about living on an island and state that
the wolf is known as suolu gievra, meaning "the strong one on the
island". The Sámi place name Sulliidčielbma means "the island's
threshold" and Suoločielgi means "the island's back". In recent
substrate studies, Sámi linguists have examined the initial cluster sk-
in words used in the Sámi languages and concluded that sk- is a
phonotactic structure of alien origin.[27] Reintroduction of the term Scandinavia in the eighteenth century Main article: Scandinavism See also: Politics of Denmark, Politics of Norway, and Politics of Sweden Scandinavism—a Norwegian, a Dane and a Swede Although
the term Scandinavia used by Pliny the Elder probably originated in the
ancient Germanic languages, the modern form Scandinavia does not
descend directly from the ancient Germanic term. Rather the word was
brought into use in Europe by scholars borrowing the term from ancient
sources like Pliny, and was used vaguely for Scania and the southern
region of the peninsula.[28] The term was popularised by the
linguistic and cultural Scandinavist movement, which asserted the common
heritage and cultural unity of the Scandinavian countries and rose to
prominence in the 1830s.[28] The popular usage of the term in Sweden,
Denmark and Norway as a unifying concept became established in the
nineteenth century through poems such as Hans Christian Andersen's "I am
a Scandinavian" of 1839. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a
supporter of early political Scandinavism. In a letter describing the
poem to a friend, he wrote: "All at once I understood how related the
Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians are, and with this feeling I wrote
the poem immediately after my return: 'We are one people, we are called
Scandinavians!'". The influence of Scandinavism as a Scandinavist
political movement peaked in the middle of the nineteenth century,
between the First Schleswig War (1848–1850) and the Second Schleswig War
(1864). The Swedish king also proposed a unification of Denmark,
Norway and Sweden into a single united kingdom. The background for the
proposal was the tumultuous events during the Napoleonic Wars in the
beginning of the century. This war resulted in Finland (formerly the
eastern third of Sweden) becoming the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland in
1809 and Norway (de jure in union with Denmark since 1387, although de
facto treated as a province) becoming independent in 1814, but
thereafter swiftly forced to accept a personal union with Sweden. The
dependent territories Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland,
historically part of Norway, remained with Denmark in accordance with
the Treaty of Kiel. Sweden and Norway were thus united under the Swedish
monarch, but Finland's inclusion in the Russian Empire excluded any
possibility for a political union between Finland and any of the other
Nordic countries. The end of the Scandinavian political movement
came when Denmark was denied the military support promised from Sweden
and Norway to annex the (Danish) Duchy of Schleswig, which together with
the (German) Duchy of Holstein had been in personal union with Denmark.
The Second war of Schleswig followed in 1864, a brief but disastrous
war between Denmark and Prussia (supported by Austria).
Schleswig-Holstein was conquered by Prussia and after Prussia's success
in the Franco-Prussian War a Prussian-led German Empire was created and a
new power-balance of the Baltic Sea countries was established. The
Scandinavian Monetary Union, established in 1873, lasted until World War
I. Use of Nordic countries vs. Scandinavia Scandinavia according to the local definition The extended usage in English, which includes Iceland and the Faroe Islands, Åland and Finland Further information on this terminology: Nordic countries and Fennoscandia The
term Scandinavia (sometimes specified in English as Continental
Scandinavia or mainland Scandinavia) is ordinarily used locally for
Denmark, Norway and Sweden as a subset of the Nordic countries (known in
Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish as Norden; Finnish: Pohjoismaat,
Icelandic: Norðurlöndin, Faroese: Norðurlond).[29] However, in
English usage, the term Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym or
near-synonym for what are known locally as Nordic
countries.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39] Usage in
English is different from usage in the Scandinavian languages themselves
(which use Scandinavia in the narrow meaning), and by the fact that the
question of whether a country belongs to Scandinavia is politicised,
people from the Nordic world beyond Norway, Denmark and Sweden may be
offended at being either included in or excluded from the category of
"Scandinavia".[40] Nordic countries is used unambiguously for
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland, including their associated
territories Greenland, the Faroe Islands and the Åland Islands.[30] A
large part of modern-day Finland was part of Sweden for more than four
centuries (see: Finland under Swedish rule), thus to much of the world
associating Finland with Scandinavia. But the creation of a Finnish
identity is unique in the region in that it was formed in relation to
two different imperial models, the Swedish[41] and the
Russian.[42][43][44] There is also the geological term
Fennoscandia (sometimes Fennoscandinavia), which in technical use refers
to the Fennoscandian Shield (or Baltic Shield), that is the
Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and Sweden), Finland and Karelia
(excluding Denmark and other parts of the wider Nordic world). The terms
Fennoscandia and Fennoscandinavia are sometimes used in a broader,
political sense to refer to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.[45] Scandinavian as an ethnic term and as a demonym Further information on this terminology: North Germanic peoples The
term Scandinavian may be used with two principal meanings, in an ethnic
or cultural sense and as a modern and more inclusive demonym. As an ethnic or cultural term In
the ethnic or cultural sense the term "Scandinavian" traditionally
refers to speakers of Scandinavian languages, who are mainly descendants
of the peoples historically known as Norsemen, but also to some extent
of immigrants and others who have been assimilated into that culture and
language. In this sense the term refers primarily to native Danes,
Norwegians and Swedes as well as descendants of Scandinavian settlers
such as the Icelanders and the Faroese. The term is also used in this
ethnic sense, to refer to the modern descendants of the Norse, in
studies of linguistics and culture.[46] As a demonym Additionally
the term Scandinavian is used demonymically to refer to all modern
inhabitants or citizens of Scandinavian countries. Within Scandinavia
the demonymic term primarily refers to inhabitants or citizens of
Denmark, Norway and Sweden. In English usage inhabitants or citizens of
Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Finland are sometimes included as well.
English general dictionaries often define the noun Scandinavian
demonymically as meaning any inhabitant of Scandinavia (which might be
narrowly conceived or broadly conceived).[47][48][49] There is a certain
ambiguity and political contestation as to which peoples should be
referred to as Scandinavian in this broader sense. Sámi people who live
in Norway and Sweden are generally included as Scandinavians in the
demonymic sense; the Sámi of Finland may be included in English usage,
but usually not in local usage; the Sámi of Russia are not included.
However, the use of the term "Scandinavian" with reference to the Sámi
is complicated by the historical attempts by Scandinavian majority
peoples and governments in Norway and Sweden to assimilate the Sámi
people into the Scandinavian culture and languages, making the inclusion
of the Sámi as "Scandinavians" controversial among many Sámi. Modern
Sámi politicians and organizations often stress the status of the Sámi
as a people separate from and equal to the Scandinavians, with their own
language and culture, and are apprehensive about being included as
"Scandinavians" in light of earlier Scandinavian assimilation policies."
(wikipedia.org) "The
Nordic countries (also known as the Nordics or Norden; lit. 'the
North')[2] are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and
the North Atlantic. It includes the sovereign states of Denmark,
Finland, Iceland, Norway[b] and Sweden; the autonomous territories of
the Faroe Islands and Greenland; and the autonomous region of Åland.[4] The
Nordic countries have much in common in their way of life, history,
religion and social structure. They have a long history of political
unions and other close relations but do not form a singular entity
today. The Scandinavist movement sought to unite Denmark, Norway and
Sweden into one country in the 19th century. With the dissolution of the
union between Norway and Sweden (Norwegian independence), the
independence of Finland in the early 20th century and the 1944 Icelandic
constitutional referendum, this movement expanded into the modern
organised Nordic cooperation. Since 1962, this cooperation has been
based on the Helsinki Treaty that sets the framework for the Nordic
Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers. The Nordic countries
cluster near the top in numerous metrics of national performance,
including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality
of life and human development.[5] Each country has its own economic and
social model, sometimes with large differences from its neighbours.
Still, they share aspects of the Nordic model of economy and social
structure to varying degrees.[6] This includes a mixed market economy
combined with strong labour unions and a universalist welfare sector
financed by high taxes, enhancing individual autonomy and promoting
social mobility. There is a high degree of income redistribution,
commitment to private ownership and little social unrest.[7][8] North
Germanic peoples, who comprise over three-quarters of the region's
population, are the largest ethnic group, followed by the Baltic Finnic
Peoples, who comprise the majority in Finland; other ethnic groups are
the Greenlandic Inuit, the Sami people and recent immigrants and their
descendants. Historically, the main religion in the region was Norse
paganism. This gave way first to Roman Catholicism after the
Christianisation of Scandinavia. Then, following the Protestant
Reformation, the main religion became Lutheran Christianity, the state
religion of several Nordic countries.[9][10] Although the area is
linguistically heterogeneous, with three unrelated language groups, the
common linguistic heritage is one factor that makes up the Nordic
identity. Most Nordic languages belong to North Germanic languages,
Finno-Ugric languages and Eskimo–Aleut languages. Danish, Norwegian and
Swedish are considered mutually intelligible, and they are the working
languages of the region's two political bodies. Swedish is a mandatory
subject in Finnish schools and Danish in Faroese and Greenlandic
schools. Danish is also taught in schools in Iceland. The
combined area of the Nordic countries is 3,425,804 square kilometres
(1,322,710 sq mi). Uninhabitable icecaps and glaciers comprise about
half of this area, mainly Greenland. In September 2021, the region had
over 27 million people. Especially in English, Scandinavia is sometimes
used as a synonym for the Nordic countries. Still, that term more
properly refers to the three monarchies of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
Geologically, the Scandinavian Peninsula comprises the mainland of
Norway and Sweden and the northernmost part of
Finland.[11][12][13][14][15] Etymology and concept of the Nordic countries The
term Nordic countries found mainstream use after the advent of
Foreningen Norden. The term is derived indirectly from the local term
Norden, used in the Scandinavian languages, which means 'The North(ern
lands)'.[16] Unlike the Nordic countries, the term Norden is in the
singular. The demonym is nordbo, literally meaning 'northern dweller'. Similar or related regional terms include:
Scandinavia refers typically to the cultural and linguistic group
formed by Denmark, Norway and Sweden, or the Scandinavian Peninsula,
which is formed by mainland Norway and Sweden as well as the
northwesternmost part of Finland. Outside of the Nordic region the term
Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for the Nordic countries.
First recorded use of the name by Pliny the Elder about a "large,
fertile island in the North" (possibly referring to Scania).[17]
Fennoscandia refers to the area that includes the Scandinavian
Peninsula, Finland, Kola Peninsula and Karelia. This term is mostly
restricted to geology, when speaking of the Fennoscandian Shield.
Cap of the North consists of the provinces and counties of Lapland in
Finland; Finnmark, Nordland and Troms in Norway; and Lapland and
Norrbotten in Sweden. This Arctic area is located around and north of
the Arctic Circle in the three Nordic European countries Norway, Sweden
and Finland and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Barents Region is
formed by the Cap of the North as well as the Northern Ostrobothnia and
Kainuu regions of Finland, Swedish provinces of Lapland, Västerbotten
and Norrbotten, Russian Oblasts of Arkhangelsk and Murmansk, Nenets
Autonomous Okrug, as well as the Republics of Karelia and Komi. This
area cooperates through the Barents Euro-Arctic Council and Barents
Regional Council" (wikipedia.org) "Early
American furniture, furniture made in the last half of the 17th century
by American colonists. The earliest known American-made furniture dates
from the mid-17th century, when life in the colonies was becoming
increasingly settled. Many of these early pieces were massive in size
and were based on styles recalled from earlier days in England. In
general, furniture styles followed those of England, with adaptations,
after an interval of about 15 years. Instead of shaped legs or feet,
American case furniture had legs and feet that were simply downward
extensions of the rectangular styles. Decoration consisted of carved
flower motifs or lunettes (crescent shapes) and chip carved (executed
with mallet and chisel) scrolls and leaves, occasionally highlighted by
painting, mainly in black, red, and yellow; but the carving was flatter,
less finished, and more primitive than its English predecessors. Turned
(shaped on a lathe) split balusters stained to look like ebony were
also applied. Joinery was confined to simple rectangular panelling with
mortise and tenon joints. Oak and pine were the commonest woods. In
view of the still-unsettled existence of the early colonists, chests
assumed particular importance because of their portability. The
Connecticut and Hadley chests were clearly variants, their carved leaf,
flower, and vine ornament bearing a marked Dutch flavour. Important,
too, in wealthier households, was the court cupboard for storing
utensils and the press cupboard for storing clothes and linen. Trestle
tables, which could be dismantled easily, were in everyday use; and the
stretcher tables—large rectangular tables with turned baluster legs
joined by stretchers—served as dining or centre tables among better
furnishings. Joint stools (small rectangular stools with four turned
legs joined with stretchers) were the commonest form of seating, but
Brewster and Carver chairs also came into use, the most popular chairs
being simplified versions of English turned chairs. Chairs with slung
leather seats of the Cromwellian type were used in more comfortable
homes by the late years of the century. Most early beds had simple, low
turned posts and plain, low headboards. Regional characteristics
appeared at an early stage and are best represented in furniture
surviving from the 17th century by the contrast between the chests from
the Connecticut River valley mentioned above and the more austere
varieties of the Massachusetts coastal settlements—sometimes painted but
characterized particularly by severe, geometric carved lozenges and
friezes of overlapping lunettes. This article was most recently revised and updated by Kathleen Kuiper." (britannica.com) " "The
culture of Denmark has a rich scientific and artistic heritage. The
astronomical discoveries of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), Ludwig A. Colding's
(1815–1888) neglected articulation of the principle of conservation of
energy, and the foundational contributions to atomic physics of Niels
Bohr (1885–1962); in this century Lene Vestergaard Hau (born 1959) in
quantum physics involving the stopping of light, advances in
nano-technology, and contributions to the understanding of Bose-Einstein
Condensates, demonstrate the range and endurance of Danish scientific
achievement. The fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875), the
philosophical essays of Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), the short
stories of Karen Blixen, penname Isak Dinesen, (1885–1962), the plays of
Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), modern authors such as Herman Bang and
Nobel laureate Henrik Pontoppidan and the dense, aphoristic poetry of
Piet Hein (1905–1996), have earned international recognition, as have
the symphonies of Carl Nielsen (1865–1931). From the mid-1990s, Danish
films have attracted international attention, especially those
associated with Dogme 95 like those of Lars Von Trier. Denmark has had a
strong tradition of movie making and Carl Theodor Dreyer has been
recognised as one of the world's greatest film directors.[1] Culture
and the arts thrive as a result of the proportionately[clarification
needed] high amount of government funding they receive, much of which is
administered by local authorities so as to involve citizens
directly.[2] Thanks to a system of grants, Danish artists are able to
devote themselves to their work while museums, theatres, and the film
institute receive national support.[3] Copenhagen, the capital,
is home to many famous sites and attractions, including Tivoli Gardens,
Amalienborg Palace (home of the Danish monarchy), Christiansborg Palace,
Copenhagen Cathedral, Rosenborg Castle, Opera House, Frederik's Church
(Marble Church), Thorvaldsens Museum, Rundetårn, Nyhavn and The Little
Mermaid sculpture." (wikipedia.org) "A
clock or a timepiece[1] is a device used to measure and indicate time.
The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to
measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the
day, the lunar month and the year. Devices operating on several physical
processes have been used over the millennia. Some predecessors
to the modern clock may be considered as "clocks" that are based on
movement in nature: A sundial shows the time by displaying the position
of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, a
well-known example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with the
sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments. A major
advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made
possible the first mechanical clocks around 1300 in Europe, which kept
time with oscillating timekeepers like balance wheels.[2][3][4][5] Traditionally,
in horology (the study of timekeeping), the term clock was used for a
striking clock, while a clock that did not strike the hours audibly was
called a timepiece. This distinction is no longer made. Watches and
other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are usually not
referred to as clocks.[6] Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th
century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished. The
next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of
the pendulum clock by Christiaan Huygens. A major stimulus to improving
the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise
time-keeping for navigation. The mechanism of a timepiece with a series
of gears driven by a spring or weights is referred to as clockwork; the
term is used by extension for a similar mechanism not used in a
timepiece. The electric clock was patented in 1840, and electronic
clocks were introduced in the 20th century, becoming widespread with the
development of small battery-powered semiconductor devices. The
timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a
physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates at a particular
frequency.[3] This object can be a pendulum, a tuning fork, a quartz
crystal, or the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves,
the last method of which is so precise that it serves as the definition
of the second. Clocks have different ways of displaying the
time. Analog clocks indicate time with a traditional clock face, with
moving hands. Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time.
Two numbering systems are in use: 12-hour time notation and 24-hour
notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or
VFD displays. For the blind and for use over telephones, speaking
clocks state the time audibly in words. There are also clocks for the
blind that have displays that can be read by touch. Etymology The
word clock derives from the medieval Latin word for 'bell'—clocca—and
has cognates in many European languages. Clocks spread to England from
the Low Countries,[7] so the English word came from the Middle Low
German and Middle Dutch Klocke.[8] The word derives from the Middle
English clokke, Old North French cloque, or Middle Dutch clocke, all of
which mean 'bell', and stem from an Old Irish root.... Quartz Picture
of a quartz crystal resonator, used as the timekeeping component in
quartz watches and clocks, with the case removed. It is formed in the
shape of a tuning fork. Most such quartz clock crystals vibrate at a
frequency of 32768 Hz. The piezoelectric properties of
crystalline quartz were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in
1880.[60][61] The first crystal oscillator was invented in 1917 by
Alexander M. Nicholson, after which the first quartz crystal oscillator
was built by Walter G. Cady in 1921.[3] In 1927 the first quartz clock
was built by Warren Marrison and J.W. Horton at Bell Telephone
Laboratories in Canada.[62][3] The following decades saw the development
of quartz clocks as precision time measurement devices in laboratory
settings—the bulky and delicate counting electronics, built with vacuum
tubes at the time, limited their practical use elsewhere. The National
Bureau of Standards (now NIST) based the time standard of the United
States on quartz clocks from late 1929 until the 1960s, when it changed
to atomic clocks.[63] In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz
wristwatch, the Astron.[64] Their inherent accuracy and low cost of
production resulted in the subsequent proliferation of quartz clocks and
watches.... Operation The
invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a
change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the
motion of the gnomon's shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a
water clock, to periodic oscillatory processes, such as the swing of a
pendulum or the vibration of a quartz crystal,[4][75] which had the
potential for more accuracy. All modern clocks use oscillation. Although
the mechanisms they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical,
electric, and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous
parts.[76][77][78] They consist of an object that repeats the same
motion over and over again, an oscillator, with a precisely constant
time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'. Attached to the
oscillator is a controller device, which sustains the oscillator's
motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its
oscillations into a series of pulses. The pulses are then counted by
some type of counter, and the number of counts is converted into
convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc. Finally some
kind of indicator displays the result in human readable form. Power source
In mechanical clocks, the power source is typically either a weight
suspended from a cord or chain wrapped around a pulley, sprocket or
drum; or a spiral spring called a mainspring. Mechanical clocks must be
wound periodically, usually by turning a knob or key or by pulling on
the free end of the chain, to store energy in the weight or spring to
keep the clock running. In electric clocks, the power source is
either a battery or the AC power line. In clocks that use AC power, a
small backup battery is often included to keep the clock running if it
is unplugged temporarily from the wall or during a power outage.
Battery-powered analog wall clocks are available that operate over 15
years between battery changes. Oscillator Balance wheel, the oscillator in a mechanical mantel clock. The
timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a
physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a
precisely constant frequency.[3][79][80][81] In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel. In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, it is a tuning fork. In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal. In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves.
In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or
foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance
spring. As a result, they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps
an hour a day.... Types Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping. Time display methods Analog See also: Clock face A modern quartz clock with a 24-hour face A
linear clock at London's Piccadilly Circus tube station. The 24 hour
band moves across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent
movement of the sun above ground, and a pointer fixed on London points
to the current time. Analog clocks usually use a clock face which
indicates time using rotating pointers called "hands" on a fixed
numbered dial or dials. The standard clock face, known universally
throughout the world, has a short "hour hand" which indicates the hour
on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a
longer "minute hand" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on
the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes. It may also have a
"second hand" which indicates the seconds in the current minute. The
only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial,
because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and
timetables. Before the modern clock face was standardized during the
Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the
years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. During the
French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour
clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but
it did not achieve widespread use. An Italian 6 hour clock was developed
in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch
striking 24 times uses more power). Another type of analog clock
is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time
by the shadow position of its gnomon. Because the sun does not adjust to
daylight saving time, users must add an hour during that time.
Corrections must also be made for the equation of time, and for the
difference between the longitudes of the sundial and of the central
meridian of the time zone that is being used (i.e. 15 degrees east of
the prime meridian for each hour that the time zone is ahead of GMT).
Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist
clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog
mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative
systems have been proposed. For example, the "Twelv" clock indicates the
current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by
showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase.... Purposes Many
cities and towns traditionally have public clocks in a prominent
location, such as a town square or city center. This one is on display
at the center of the town of Robbins, North Carolina Clocks are
in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are
carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places,
e.g. a railway station or church. A small clock is often shown in a
corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players. The
primary purpose of a clock is to display the time. Clocks may also have
the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically
to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as alarm
clocks. The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have
the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm
clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to
children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has
finished; they are sometimes called training clocks. A clock
mechanism may be used to control a device according to time, e.g. a
central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter).
Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also
used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical
telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to
counteract the rotation of the Earth. Most digital computers
depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize
processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few research
projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some
equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as
required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from
the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its
cycles. In Chinese culture, giving a clock (traditional Chinese:
送鐘; simplified Chinese: 送钟; pinyin: sòng zhōng) is often taboo,
especially to the elderly as the term for this act is a homophone with
the term for the act of attending another's funeral (traditional
Chinese: 送終; simplified Chinese: 送终; pinyin: sòngzhōng).[91][92][93] This
homonymic pair works in both Mandarin and Cantonese, although in most
parts of China only clocks and large bells, and not watches, are called
"zhong", and watches are commonly given as gifts in China. However,
should such a gift be given, the "unluckiness" of the gift can be
countered by exacting a small monetary payment so the recipient is
buying the clock and thereby counteracting the '送' ("give") expression
of the phrase." (wikipedia.org) "Justin
Whitlock Dart Sr. (August 17, 1907 – January 26, 1984) was an American
businessman, considered the "boy wonder" of the drug store industry. In
college Dart had played football for Northwestern University. Biography This
section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. Find sources: "Justin Whitlock Dart Sr." –
news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2016) (Learn how and
when to remove this template message) He was born on August 17,
1907. After marrying Ruth Walgreen, Dart became an executive with his
father-in-law's (Charles Walgreen) company, the Walgreens Drugstore
chain. At Walgreens, he introduced the concept of placing the pharmacy
counter at the back of the drug store, which not only provided privacy
for medical concerns, but forced patrons to walk past many items for
possible purchase. Dart divorced his first wife, Ruth Walgreen,
and left the Walgreen company shortly after. In 1943, Dart took control
of the Boston-based United Drug Company. The chain operated under the
Liggett, Owl, Sonta, and Rexall brands. Soon, Dart rebranded the stores
under the Rexall name. After 35 years, Dart sold his stake in Rexall in
1978. Not long afterwards, he said "I would like my retirement and death
to be simultaneous." During these years, Dart had acquired stakes in
Avon, West Bend Housewares, Duracell, Ralph Wilson Plastics, Archer
Glass and Hobart, which were collectively known as Dart Industries. In
1980, Dart sold his company to Kraft Industries. Although Dart
Industries never owned Avon, it was the former parent company to
Tupperware Home Parties. Dart Industries eventually merged with Kraft
Foods." (wikipedia.org)
Condition:Used
Condition:In good, pre-owned condition. Please see photos and description.