Kīlauea Volcano near Hilo Bay Hawaii Hawaiian Photographs 1924 Old Vintage

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (807) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176290343464 Kīlauea Volcano near Hilo Bay Hawaii Hawaiian Photographs 1924 Old Vintage. A lava lake drained out of Halema‘uma‘u in February 1924, followed by a severe earthquake swarm in lower Puna, 50 km down the east rift zone. The seismic activity began building in early April, reaching its peak on April 23 with ground cracking, faulting, coastal subsidence, and hundreds of felt earthquakes. 3 photos of Kilauea volcano during its eruption in May 1924. each photo measurwes 5x7 inches. The May 1924 Explosive Eruption of Kīlauea Kapoho, Hawai‘i residents in lower Puna await evacuation during seismic crises prior to the 1924 eruption at Kīlauea's summit. (Credit: Maehara, Kenichi. Public domain.) Halema‘uma‘u, the largest crater in Kīlauea Caldera, was the site of more than 50 explosive events during a 2.5-week period in May 1924. The explosions were then, and remain today, the most powerful at Kīlauea since the early 19th century, throwing blocks weighing as much as 14 tons from the crater. Halema‘uma‘u doubled in diameter, deepened to about 400 m (1300 ft), and drastically changed in behavior—for the next 85 years it no longer hosted a long-lived lava lake, until one returned in 2008.

The May 1924 Explosive Eruption of Kīlauea Kapoho, Hawai‘i residents in lower Puna await evacuation during sei... Kapoho, Hawai‘i residents in lower Puna await evacuation during seismic crises prior to the 1924 eruption at Kīlauea's summit. (Credit: Maehara, Kenichi. Public domain.) Halema‘uma‘u, the largest crater in Kīlauea Caldera, was the site of more than 50 explosive events during a 2.5-week period in May 1924. The explosions were then, and remain today, the most powerful at Kīlauea since the early 19th century, throwing blocks weighing as much as 14 tons from the crater. Halema‘uma‘u doubled in diameter, deepened to about 400 m (1300 ft), and drastically changed in behavior—for the next 85 years it no longer hosted a long-lived lava lake, until one returned in 2008. Dust cloud caused by the collapse of the Halemaumau crater floor at... Dust cloud caused by the collapse of the Halemaumau crater floor at Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai‘i, May 9, 1924. (Public domain.) Prelude to the eruption – a draining lava lake and a swarm of earthquakes A lava lake drained out of Halema‘uma‘u in February 1924, followed by a severe earthquake swarm in lower Puna, 50 km down the east rift zone. The seismic activity began building in early April, reaching its peak on April 23 with ground cracking, faulting, coastal subsidence, and hundreds of felt earthquakes. These events indicated the transfer of magma from the summit to lower Puna, either the same magma that left Halemaumau or stored magma that was pushed ahead by that which drained away. Halema‘uma‘u Crater was 115 m (377 ft) deep following the draining of the lake. As seismicity waned in lower Puna, the crater floor began to collapse on April 29, deepening to more than 150 m (490 ft) on May 1 and nearly 210 m (690 ft) on May 7. Frequent dust clouds indicated continuing collapse in the following days. Explosive events lasted for two and a half weeks. The first explosion, neither seen nor heard, took place during the night of May 9–10 with small rocks reported to have been thrown out of the crater. Larger explosions followed, starting on May 13 and spaced a few hours apart. During the same time, Halemaumau continued to collapse, its failing walls contributing to the debris thrown from the crater. Clouds of rock particles ejected into the air often obscured the crater from view. Toward the end, it became difficult to distinguish the cloud of a small explosion confined to the crater from the dust cloud generated by a rock avalanche; consequently, the end date of the eruption is somewhat uncertain but is taken to be May 27, when the last observed ejecta left the crater. Explosive eruption column from Halema‘uma‘u Crater 11:15 a.m. May 1... Explosive eruption column from Halema‘uma‘u Crater 11:15 a.m. May 18, 1924 - one of many in a series of similar events during May 11-27. Photo from northwest rim of Kīlauea summit, present site of HVO. (Credit: Maehara, K. Public domain.) Block weighing about 8-10 tons about 1 km (0.6 mi) SE of Halema‘uma... View looks away from Halema‘uma‘u, in the direction the block was falling. left to right: Oliver Emerson, Tai Sing Loo (in crater, holding camera), John Stokes. Photo taken 9:30 a.m. May 22, 1924. (Credit: Stearns, H. T.. Public domain.) The larger explosion clouds reached several kilometers high, with an maximum of 9 km (about 5.5 mi) estimated by Ruy Finch of HVO. Trade winds were blowing from the northeast during the eruption, yet wet ash fell at least once on railroad tracks in lower Puna, northeast of Halema‘uma‘u. This is consistent with the ash cloud rising about 5 km (3 mi) or more into the jet stream wind, which blows from the west. Gutters on the roof of a store in Glenwood, 16 km (10 mi) northeast of Halema‘uma‘u, collapsed from the weight of muddy ash, also suggestive of jet-stream transport. Strong rainstorms, a few with lightning, accompanied some of the explosions, but it is impossible to know for certain if these conditions were related directly to the explosive activity. Arguably the largest explosion took place on the morning of Sunday, May 18. A number of people were near Halemaumau then, and one of them was killed by falling debris. Another large one occurred that evening. Thereafter, none of the explosions matched those of May 18. At Kīlauea, when the lava column drops below the water table, groun... At Kīlauea, when the lava column drops below the water table, groundwater may come into contact with with magma or hot rocks, causing violent steam explosions. (Public domain.) Most of the material in the explosion clouds was derived from rocks that fell and avalanched from the crater wall onto its floor, only to be incorporated in the powerful explosions. A small amount of lava was also ejected, probably coming from pockets of lava that were left behind in the crater wall after the lava lake drained away. Explosions were powered by steam. The explosions were powered mainly by steam, generated as groundwater came in contact with hot rocks. At Kīlauea, volcanologists think this happens when lavadrains from the conduit—probably a few meters wide— connecting the lava lake and a deeper magma body. Below the water table, a conduit filled with magma keeps water out, but, once the conduit empties, groundwater can flow into the still-hot conduit, where it quickly flashes to steam. Most of the time, the steam rises up the conduit and escapes without explosion. However, the wall of the conduit, which is no longer supported by a filling of lava, collapses from time to time, temporarily impounding the steam. The steam quickly builds up pressure, and, within several minutes, overcomes the weight of the blockage and explodes the collapse debris out of the crater. As pressure is released, the explosion ends and passive release of steam resumes, only to be punctuated again by another wall collapse. Steam cloud over Halema‘uma‘u about May 24, 1924. Before May 16, av... Steam cloud over Halema‘uma‘u about May 24, 1924. Before May 16, avalanche dust was rising continuously. After that, the pit cleared as shown here between explosions. (Credit: Loo, Tai Sing. Public domain.) Probably some volcanic gas was also emitted in 1924. Such gas would have streamed up the conduit even when it was empty and likely contributed to the pressure build-up after wall collapses. Halema‘uma‘u more than doubled in size. Halema‘uma‘u grew during the eruption, as its walls collapsed and its bottom dropped. It doubled in diameter to approximately 1,000 m (3,280 ft) and subsided about 285 m (935 ft) after the lava lake drained. Shortly after the eruption, HVO scientists Ruy Finch and Thomas Jaggar calculated that the volume of Halemaumau enlargement was about 200 million cubic meters (260 million cubic yards) and the volume of the ejecta, about 0.8 million cubic meters (1 million cubic yard). In other words, the ejecta constituted only about 0.4 percent of the volume of enlargement. As Jaggar wrote at the time, "The explosive eruption was merely an incident in the mechanism of engulfment." Similar explosive eruptions will happen again. Almost certainly. All that it takes to trigger them is the removal of magma from the conduit that connects Halema‘uma‘u to its parent magma body 1–3 km (0.6–1.8 mi) below the caldera floor. Though most past explosions that we know about took place during one of Kīlauea's dominantly explosive periods, the 1924 events occurred during a dominantly effusive period. This shows that explosions can be triggered by large-scale migration of magma into one of the rift zones. No matter whether Kīlauea is in an effusive period, as it is now, or in an explosive period, as it was between about 1500 and the early 19th-century, it should be considered an explosive volcano. Although violent, the 1924 explosions were small by comparison with past explosions at Kīlauea—so small, in fact, that it is hard to find even a trace of the 1924 deposits anywhere outside the caldera. In contrast, the caldera walls expose as much as 11 m (36 ft) of past explosive deposits. In a way, then, the 1924 events are the equivalent of looking backwards through a telescope at past explosions—enlightening, but not to scale. See the table summarizing Kīlauea activity over the past ~200 years here. Thomas Jaggar standing amid ash and blocks of the May 1924 eruption... Thomas Jaggar standing amid ash and blocks of the May 1924 eruption, looking east-northeast toward Kīlauea Iki. Note the fresh cracks that opened as Halema‘uma‘u was widening during its collapse. (Credit: Loo, Tai Sing. Public domain.) Kīlauea 1924 eruption image gallery: Steam-Driven Blasts Last Seen at Kīlauea in 1924 May Recur Sinking magma levels and rockfalls prompt warnings, flight restrictions, and the shutdown of Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park. Halema'uma'u crater ash plume from 1924 An explosion at Halema’uma’u crater on 18 May 1924. One person was killed by falling debris during this explosive sequence. Credit: U.S. Geological Survey; photo by Kenichi Maehara, courtesy of Bishop Museum By Ilima Loomis  15 May 2018 As a textbook example of an effusive volcano, Hawaii’s Kīlauea is known for liquid, oozing lava that erupts in flows, fountains, and splatters. But scientists at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) are now warning that conditions are right for rare explosive eruptions that could launch “ballistic blocks” the size of refrigerators in the summit area, and blanket downwind communities with a layer of ash. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) issued the warning for explosive eruptions this past Wednesday, after the lava lake in Kīlauea’s summit crater, called Halema’uma’u (or “House of Ferns”), dropped to a level they believed was near the water table. Ordinarily, magma in a volcano’s internal plumbing heats the surrounding rock, sealing it against water movement, explained Jessica Johnson, a volcano geophysicist at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom, who spent 2011–2013 on a research fellowship at Kīlauea. However, when the magma level falls below the water table and the rock above it cools, small cracks open up through which water can flow into the conduits, she noted. The water can become trapped underground as rocks falling down the sides of the emptying crater plug the vent. “The pressure builds up, and that’s when you get a larger explosion.”When heat from the magma turns the water into steam, “the pressure builds up, and that’s when you get a larger explosion,” Johnson said. Unusual for Kīlauea If such explosions were to happen during the current effusive eruption episode, which began on 3 May, it would be the first time that explosive eruptions would occur at Kīlauea since 1924. Back then, scientists counted more than 50 massive explosions over a two-and-a-half-week period. The summit crater of Halema’uma’u doubled in diameter to 1,000 meters in the eruption, and boulders weighing as much as 14 tons were thrown into the air. Halema'uma'u crater boulder from 1924 This boulder, ejected from Halema’uma’u during an explosion on 18 May 1924, was tossed 2,000 feet from the crater. Credit: U.S. Geological Survey; Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, courtesy of Bishop Museum Until last week, attention on the latest eruption had focused on the ongoing flow of lava out of fissures in Kīlauea’s eastern flank, which has forced the evacuation of more than 1,000 residents from Hawaii Island’s Puna district and destroyed 37 structures to date. Last week’s warning shifted attention to the volcano’s summit crater, more than an hour’s drive away. Because of the danger of steam-driven explosions, also known as phreatomagmatic eruptions, the U.S. National Park Service on Friday closed Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park, which includes the summit; the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration issued a flight restriction around the area; and only essential personnel remained at HVO near the edge of the crater. These types of explosions have occurred at volcanoes elsewhere in the world. The 2014 eruption of Mount Ontake in Japan, which killed 63 people, was caused by pressurized steam. Although they can be deadly, such explosions are unusual for Kīlauea, Johnson said; a 1984 paper estimated that only about 1% of eruptions at Kīlauea over its history have been explosive. That’s largely because the magma’s low silica content and hot temperature make it so runny. “It’s unusual for pressures to be built up,” Johnson said. “Usually, gas is able to escape.” Draining Magma “In general, we understand [that] the more explosive phases occur when there’s a very low magma supply to the volcano,” she said.Still, Kīlauea seems to undergo cycles of explosive-style eruptions, said USGS volcanologist Wendy Stovall. In addition to the 1924 event, the volcano had an explosive eruption in 1790, she said. “In general, we understand [that] the more explosive phases occur when there’s a very low magma supply to the volcano,” she said. Kīlauea’s surface swells as underground reservoirs fill with magma, and then subsides, or deflates, as reservoirs empty. The lava lake at Halema’uma’u began draining on 2 May, with the level dropping 2 meters per hour until the lake’s surface disappeared from sight on Friday, USGS scientists said. Since then, using tiltmeters, GPS, and satellite radar interferometry, HVO volcanologists have observed steady subsidence of the volcano’s summit, an indication that the magma column is still receding. The amount of subsidence is likely a matter of millimeters, Johnson said—too small to be noticeable to the naked eye but able to be detected with volcanologists’ sensitive instruments. Kilauea ash plume from May 2018 An ash plume rose from the crater at Kīlauea’s summit on Friday, probably indicating a rockfall within the crater. Credit: U.S. Geological Survey Plumes of gas, smoke, and steam billowing up from deep within the crater provide further clues to what’s happening underground, Johnson said. Brown or gray plumes indicate sulfur dioxide or ash. “What they’ve been seeing are some very white ones, which suggests steam,” she said. “That suggests there’s water coming into contact with the magma.” Scientists have also observed a number of rockfalls from the steep sides of the now empty crater, activity that can contribute to plugging the vent, she added. Rocks falling from the exposed walls of the crater can also agitate the surface of the lava lake, as seen in a USGS video shown in this tweet from the agency. The video was taken on 7 May, 5 days after the lava level began to drop. Scientific Opportunity Even though scientists may be seeing conditions similar to those that preceded Kīlauea’s other explosions, they’re not on the same scale, said Tina Neal, the scientist in charge of HVO. “We have yet to see the kind of drawdown or subsidence or deformation at the summit that occurred in 1924,” she said. Moreover, any explosions would be localized around the summit, not blow-the-top-off catastrophic blasts like the one at Mount St. Helens in Washington State in 1980, USGS scientists said. That’s because Kīlauea is a different type of volcano than Mount St. Helens. Kīlauea has runny lava and an open vent that has allowed an ongoing release of pressure. A relatively small mass of rock sits on top of Kīlauea’s magma, whereas Mount St. Helens’s much stickier lava had long trapped gases beneath a tremendous rock mass, explained Johnson. When a landslide suddenly removed some of the Washington State volcano’s overlying material, the pressurized gas was able to blow the rest away. “This could be a completely new data set for us,” she said. “Why is the lava lake being drained away? And what is it that triggers this change in eruptive behavior?”Although Kīlauea’s 1924 explosion was observed by scientists, including the famous volcanologist Thomas Jagger, who described it in a paper, the current eruption could provide an opportunity to study the phenomenon with modern tools, Johnson noted. “This could be a completely new data set for us,” Johnson said. “Why is the lava lake being drained away? And what is it that triggers this change in eruptive behavior? That [last question], I think, is a fundamental question that this sequence can possibly provide data for.” From 1823 to 1924, there was almost continuous eruptive activity within Halemaʻumaʻu crater. During this period, there were 15 eruptions and 11 subsidence events at the summit. In February 1924, the lava drained out of Halemaʻumaʻu and began to migrate down the east rift zone. On April 23, seismic activity peaked that led to ground cracking, faulting and coastal subsidence in lower Puna. No lava came to the surface in this area, but there may have been an undersea eruption. The Halemaʻumaʻu crater was 377 ft (115 m) deep following the draining of the lava lake. Through a serious of collapses that began on April 29, the crater deepened to 690 ft (210 m) by May 7. Steam and pressure built as the buried hot rocks became saturated from the water table. For 18 days, hundreds of steam explosions from Kīlauea hurled mud, debris, and boulders great distances. The first explosion occurred on the evening of May 9. Larger explosions followed on May 13, and the crater continued to collapse. From May 9 to May 27, a series of more than 50 explosions doubled the diameter of the crater to about 3,289 ft (100 m) and deepened the crater to about 1300 ft (400 m). Steam explosions hurled mud, debris, and hot rocks weighing as much as 8 tons (7,000 kg) two-thirds of a mile (1 km). The largest explosion occurred on May 18 that killed a photographer by falling debris. Explosive eruptions on Kīlauea have occurred in the past and will almost certainly occur in the future.   1924 Explosive Eruption of Kīlauea PHOTO GALLERY 1924 Explosive Eruption of Kīlauea 8 PHOTOS For 18 days in 1924, hundreds of steam explosions from Kīlauea hurled mud, debris, and boulders great distances A series of images from the 1924 eruption of Kilauea told the story of lessons learned Tuesday night at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park’s visitor center. A series of images from the 1924 eruption of Kilauea told the story of lessons learned Tuesday night at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park’s visitor center. Ben Gaddis, a volunteer for the U.S. Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, used a series of black-and-white photographs and old newspaper clippings to entertain and educate attendees during an “After Dark in the Park” program as part of HVO’s 2014 Volcano Awareness Month. Onlookers listened as Gaddis provided an in-depth overview of the events leading up to the Sunday, May 18, 1924, eruption that resulted in the death of one man and chaos among area residents. In the dimly lit room, Gaddis started the tale by introducing key players: Thomas Jaggar, the scientist in charge of the observatory; Ruy Finch, who was left in charge while Jaggar was out of town during the eruptions; and Thomas Boles, who had been appointed as the first full-time superintendent of the park two years prior to the explosive incidents. Gaddis said it all started in the spring of 1924, when multiple Kapoho residents reported unusual activity occurring near their homes. On April 21, Gaddis said one resident reported he “felt 88 distinct shocks at his house.” “The next day, things were worse. A resident near a railroad quarry counted 238 shocks between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m., when he gave up counting and went to bed,” Gaddis explained. With Jaggar away, Finch and Boles were left to investigate. They headed to Kapoho on April 23 and discovered a crack on the side of the road that was 12 feet wide. Gaddis said the two stopped to eat lunch, and by the time they had finished eating, the gap had widened to 13-and-a-half feet. But by April 24, the unusual activity had “tampered out.” “Amazingly, the area affected by the earthquake was very restrictive,” Gaddis said. “ In the events at Kapoho, the only casualty was one cow that fell into a crack.” Boles, who focused on enhancing tourism at the park, did not view the earthquake activity as a significant threat and tour groups were still allowed to visit the park despite the unusual activity. His judgement would be called into question during a tour of Halema‘uma‘u on May 9. “They were enveloped in swirls of sand for 40 minutes and the report that said these people were really astounded by the view is putting it modestly,” Gaddis said. That evening, about 12 hours following the departure of the tour group, the first big explosions occurred around Halema‘uma‘u. The next morning, Finch found fragments of rock up to 100 pounds that had been blown 750 feet from the rim of the pit. “The visitors had timed their visit well,” Gaddis joked. After the explosion, Boles ordered his staff to build a rock barrier so no cars could get pass, but people were still allowed to walk to the rim of Halema‘uma‘u at their own risk. Rocks continued to be ejected over the next few days, and it would take a near-death experience on May 13 for Boles to rethink the park’s public access points. A few days later on May 16, Gaddis said Boles was watching the eruption when the entire crater turned red. “After a few seconds, flashes of lightning played back and forth. Five carloads of tourists were nearby and one described the thousands of lights that broke from the eruption cloud gave the appearance of skyrockets,” he said. That evening, women and children were evacuated from Kilauea Military Camp and it was reported that the ash fell as far down as Glenwood. Activity continued and Gaddis said on May 18, “All hell had broken loose.” Violent eruptions while visitors were in the park resulted in the death of one man and a scramble for survivors to make it to safety. The explosions also caused an electrical storm and produced so much hot rock that it gave the appearance of lava flow. Following the day’s incidents, the Volcano House would be closed for the first time in “living memory.” Gaddis reflected on what scientists and park managers learned from the “relatively modest eruption of Kilauea.” “An event like this can and will happen again and any such eruption could be much bigger and could last much longer. If there were problems in 1924, imagine the chaos that such an eruption would cause today,” he said. “Lines of authorities need to be clear and the public needs to receive information from one reliable source,” he said. “Good planning is essential to the safety of everyone.” Visit the HVO’s website at http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov for more information about the 1924 eruptions and activities for Volcano Awareness month. Kīlauea (US: /ˌkɪləˈweɪə/ KIL-ə-WAY-ə, Hawaiian: [tiːlɐwˈwɛjə]) is an active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. Historically, it is the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. Located along the southeastern shore of the island, the volcano is between 210,000 and 280,000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100,000 years ago. Its most recent eruption began on December 20, 2020[4] and ended on May 23, 2021. It is the second-youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa, Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor. Structurally, Kīlauea has a large, fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones, one extending 125 km (78 mi) east and the other 35 km (22 mi) west, as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm (0.1 to 0.8 in) per year. Kīlauea erupted nearly continuously from 1983 to 2018, causing considerable property damage, including the destruction of the towns of Kalapana and Kaimū along with the renowned black sand beach, in 1990. During the 2018 lower Puna eruption, two dozen lava vents erupted downrift from the summit in Puna. The eruption was accompanied by a strong earthquake on May 4 of Mw 6.9, and nearly 2,000 residents were evacuated from the rural Leilani Estates subdivision and nearby areas. On May 17, 2018, the volcano explosively erupted at the summit in Halemaʻumaʻu, throwing ash 30,000 feet (9,144 m) into the air.[5] Continued explosive activity at the summit caused a months-long closure of the Kīlauea section of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Vigorous eruptive lava fountains in lower Puna sent destructive rivers of molten rock into the ocean in three places. The lava destroyed Hawaii's largest natural freshwater lake, covered substantial portions of Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens, and completely inundated the communities of Kapoho, Vacationland Hawaii and most of the Kapoho Beach Lots. Lava also filled Kapoho Bay and extended new land nearly a mile into the sea.[6][7] The County of Hawaii reported that 716 dwellings were destroyed by lava.[8] By early August the eruption subsided substantially, and the last active lava was reported at the surface on September 4, 2018.[8] On December 5, 2018, after 90 days of inactivity from the volcano, the eruption that began in 1983 was declared to have ended.[9][10] On December 20, 2020, an eruption broke out in Halemaʻumaʻu, with the lava boiling off a water lake that had been growing for more than a year and replacing it with a lava lake.[4] The lava lake reached a depth of 180 metres (590 ft) by late December; however, eruptive activity steadily decreased in 2021, with the lava depth increasing only slightly to 225 metres (738 ft) by April 2021.[11] On May 26, 2021, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory announced that Kīlauea was no longer erupting. Lava supply to the lava lake appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lava lake had completely crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23.[12] Contents 1 Background 2 Geology 2.1 Setting 2.2 Structure 3 Eruptive history 3.1 Prehistoric eruptions 3.2 1790 to 1934 3.3 1952 to 1982 3.4 1983–2018 3.4.1 2018 eruptive episodes 3.4.1.1 Effect of the 2018 lower Puna eruption on Kīlauea's summit 3.5 2019–20: Water lake appears at the summit 3.6 2020–21 summit eruption 4 Hazards 4.1 Future threats 4.2 Volcanic Explosivity Index 5 Ecology 5.1 Background 5.2 Ecosystems 6 Human history 6.1 Ancient Hawaiian 6.2 Modern era 7 Tourism 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Background Kīlauea's eruptive history has been a long and active one; its name means "spewing" or "much spreading" in the Hawaiian language, referring to its frequent outpouring of lava. The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage, samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples. Lavas younger than 1,000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano's surface. The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years. The first well-documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 (Western contact and written history began in 1778). Since then, the volcano has erupted repeatedly. Most historical eruptions occurred at the volcano's summit or its eastern rift zone, and were prolonged and effusive in character. The geological record shows, however, that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common; in 1790 one such eruption killed more than 400 people, making it the deadliest volcanic eruption in what is now the United States.[13] Should explosive activity start anew, the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans. Kīlauea's most recent eruption (before the currently ongoing one) began on January 3, 1983, and ended in 2018. This was by far its longest-duration historical period of activity, as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions in the world; as of January 2011, the eruption had produced 3.5 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2 (48 sq mi) of land. Kīlauea's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology, where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide, producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert. Nonetheless, wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea's (and the island of Hawaiʻi's) isolation from the nearest landmass. Historically, the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people, and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea's Halemaʻumaʻu served as the body and home of Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.[14] William Ellis, a missionary from England, gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, located on the rim of Kīlauea Caldera, has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general. In 1916, a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson; since then, the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination, attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually. Geology Setting Location of Kīlauea on Hawaiʻi island Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Kīlauea was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth's underlying mantle.[15] The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.[16] The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era.[16][17] However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic.[18] Kīlauea is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi, created by the Hawaiian hotspot.[19] The oldest volcano on the island, Kohala, is more than a million years old,[20] and Kīlauea, the youngest, is believed to be between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age;[19] Lōʻihi Seamount, on the island's flank, is younger and has yet to breach the surface.[21] Thus Kilauea is the second youngest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench in Russia.[22] Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation, Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano, gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions[23] about 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano's activity has likely been as it is now, a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity in the last 200 or 300 years.[24] At most 600,000 years old, Kīlauea is still quite young for a Hawaiian volcano;[19] the oldest volcano on the island, the northwestern Kohala, experienced almost 900,000 years of activity before going extinct.[20] The volcano's foreseeable future activity will likely be much like it has been for the past 50,000 to 100,000 years; Hawaiian and explosive activity will make Kīlauea taller, build up its rift zones, and fill and refill its summit caldera.[24] Structure Simulated true-color Landsat mosaic. Kīlauea's summit caldera; volcanic gas can be seen rising out of Halemaʻumaʻu, within the caldera Kīlauea has been active throughout its history.[24] Since 1918, Kīlauea's only prolonged period of rest was an 18-year pause between 1934 and 1952.[25] The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows, intermittent with scattered volcanic ash and tephra sourced from relatively lower-volume explosive eruptions.[24] Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows, and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1,100 years.[26] Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time, and thus much of its bulk remains underwater;[23] its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping, elongate, decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1,500 km2 (579 sq mi),[27] making up 13.7 percent of the island's total surface area.[19] Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence, appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank of the nearby Mauna Loa; because of this, both native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its more massive neighbor. However, analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes shows that they have separate magma chambers, and are thus distinct. Nonetheless, their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always the case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa's summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea's Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater. In 2002, Kilauea experienced a high-volume effusive episode at the same time that Mauna Loa began inflating. This unexpected communication is evidence of crustal-level interactions between Mauna Loa and Kīlauea, even though these two volcanoes are thought to be fairly independent of each other.[28] Geologists have suggested that "pulses" of magma entering Mauna Loa's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions.[29] Kīlauea has a large summit caldera, measuring 4 by 3.2 km (2.5 by 2.0 mi) with walls up to 120 m (400 ft) high, breached by lava flows on the southwestern side.[25] It is unknown if the caldera was always there or if it is a relatively recent feature, and it is possible that it has come and gone throughout Kīlauea's eruptive history.[24] What is known is that the summit caldera likely formed over several centuries, with its construction estimated to have begun about 500 years ago,[30] and its present form was finalized by a particularly powerful eruption in 1790.[24] A major feature within the caldera is Halemaʻumaʻu, a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea's most historically active eruption centers. The crater is approximately 920 m (3,018 ft) in diameter and 85 m (279 ft) deep, but its form has varied widely through its eruptive history; the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu is now mostly covered by flows from its 1974 eruption.[31] Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit, one leading 125 km (78 mi) out to the east, the other 35 km (22 mi) long and trending towards the southwest.[24] A series of fault scarps connecting the two rift zones form the Koa'e Fault Zone. Tectonic extension along both rift zones is causing Kīlauea's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) per year, centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km (4 to 6 mi) beneath the volcano's surface.[32] The eastern rift zone in particular is a dominant feature on the volcano; it is almost entirely covered in lava erupted in the last 400 years, and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km (1 to 2 mi) wide.[27] Non-localized eruptions, typical of rift zone activity,[24] have produced a series of low-lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone's length.[27] Its upper segment is the most presently active section of the volcano,[26][30] and is additionally the site of a number of large pit craters;[33] its lower extremity reaches down Kīlauea's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5,000 m (16,400 ft).[30] By contrast, the much smaller southwestern rift has been quiet since a rifting episode in 1974, and to date, has not been involved in the current eruptive cycle at all.[32] The southwestern rift zone's extremity is also underwater, although its submarine length is more limited. The southwestern rift zone also lacks a well-defined ridge line or a large number of pit craters, evidence that it is also geologically less active than the eastern rift zone.[30] A prominent structure on Kīlauea's southern flank is the Hilina fault system, a highly active fault slipping vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm (1⁄16 to 13⁄16 in) per year[clarification needed] along the system. Its physiographic province is 500 m (1,640 ft) deep, but it is unknown whether it is a shallow listric fault or if it penetrates to the very base of the volcano.[15] In connection with the 2018 lower Puna eruption the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory published some facts leading to the conclusion, that a catastrophic collapse would be incredibly remote.[34] A number of cinder cones, satellite shields, lava tubes, and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano, evidence of its recent activity.[33] Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa, its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks, and some of Mauna Loa's flows are, in turn, blanketed in Kīlauea tephra. In particular, the saddle between the two volcanoes is currently depressed, and is likely to fill over in the future.[30] All historical eruptions at Kīlauea have occurred at one of three places: its summit caldera, its eastern rift zone, or its southwestern rift zone.[19] Half of Kīlauea's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kīlauea's summit caldera. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, capped by a massive explosive eruption in 1924, before petering out by 1934. Recent activity has mostly shifted to Kīlauea's eastern rift zone, the site of 24 historical eruptions, located mostly on its upper section; by contrast, the volcano's southwestern rift zone has been relatively quiet, and has only been the site of five events to date.[24] Eruptive history See also: List of Kīlauea eruptions Graph summarizing the eruptions of Kïlauea during the past 200 years. The Pu‘u ‘Ö‘ö- Kupaianaha eruption has continued into the 21st century. Information is sketchy for eruptions before 1823, when the first missionaries arrived on the Island of Hawai‘i. The total duration of eruptive activity in a given year, shown by the length of the vertical bar, may be for a single eruption or a combination of several separate eruptions. Prehistoric eruptions Rainbow and volcanic ash with sulfur dioxide emissions from Halemaʻumaʻu Geologists have dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano's long history, bridging the long gap between Kīlauea's oldest known rock and only extremely recent written records and historical observation.[35] Historical lava flows from the volcano are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways. The oldest flows, dating back 275,000 to 225,000 years, have been recovered from Kīlauea's submerged southern slope by ship-towed remotely operated vehicles. These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early, submerged preshield-stage eruptive episodes, from when the volcano was still a rising seamount that had not yet breached the ocean surface,[36] and their surface exposure is unusual, as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by more recent flows.[15] The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples; however, the cores have proved difficult to date, and several samples from depths of around 1,700 m (5,600 ft) that suggested dates as old as 450,000 years have since been found erroneous. More reliable paleomagnetic dating, limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea's emergence from the sea, has suggested ages of around 50,000 years. Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger. Some of the oldest reliably dated rock, 43,000 years old, comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali; however, samples dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m (20 ft) per thousand years, indicating that the oldest exposed flows, from the base of the feature, could date back as far as 70,000 years.[36] This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow, a southwestern rift zone flow with an uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC.[35] The oldest well-studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member, the product of explosive eruptions between 2,800 and 2,100 years ago. Although it has since been largely buried by younger flows, it remains exposed in some places, and has been traced more than 20 km (12 mi) from the volcano's caldera, evidence of very powerful eruptions. Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time, termed the Powers Caldera, whose fractures and faults lie 2 km (1 mi) outside the modern caldera. At least 1,200 years ago, lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure; this was followed by a period of very voluminous tube-fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit. Following cessation of activity around 400 years ago, eruptions re-centered on the eastern part of Kīlauea's summit, and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone.[30] 1790 to 1934 Painting of the 1891 eruption The earliest reliable written records of historical activity date back to about 1820,[37] and the first well-documented eruption occurred in 1823, when the volcano was first put under observation;[24] although Native Hawaiians are thought to have first settled on the island around 1,500 years ago, oral records predating European arrival on the island are few and difficult to interpret.[30] One pre-contact eruption in particular, a phreatomagmatic event in 1790,[25] was responsible for the death of a party of warriors, part of the army of Keōua Kuahuʻula, the last island chief to resist Kamehameha I's rule; their death is evidenced by a set of footprints preserved within the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[37] Kīlauea has been the site of 61 separate eruptions since 1823, easily making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth.[19][25] During its observed history, the volume of lava erupted by Kīlauea has varied widely. In 1823 Kīlauea's summit caldera was far deeper than it is today, but was in the process of filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption, with 3 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava erupted there alone by 1840. The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in eruptive volume, and in the thirty years between then and about 1950, the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited very little activity; Kīlauea's eruptive volume has increased steadily since then, with present activity comparable to that of the early 1800s.[24] The length and origin of these eruptions have also varied. Events last anywhere between days and years, and occur at a number of different sites. Half of all eruptions occur at or near Kīlauea's summit caldera. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907, continued onwards until 1924. There have been five historical eruptions at the volcano's relatively quiet southwestern rift zone, and 24 along its more active eastern rift zone, mostly along its upper section.[24] The volcano's observed history has mostly been one of effusive eruptions; however, this is a relatively recent occurrence. Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans on the island, Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity, evidenced then by tribal chants referencing the volcano's fickle nature, and today by geological records of an explosively active mode of past activity. Although explosive activity still occurs at the volcano, it is not as intense as it once was, and the volcano would become much more dangerous to the general public if it returned to its old phase of activity once more.[38] Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site of a large, effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km (22 mi) of its length, unusually long even for a rift eruption.[39] The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava;[25] the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night, 30 km (19 mi) away.[39] The volcano was active again in 1868, 1877, 1884, 1885, 1894, and 1918,[25] before its next major eruption in 1918–1919. Halemaʻumaʻu, then a small upwelling in the caldera floor, was topped by a lava lake that then drained, before refilling again, forming an enormous lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of the caldera before draining once more. This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki, building up the large lava shield on the volcano's southwest rift zone over a period of eight months. The eruption also featured concurrent rift activity and a large amount of lava fountaining.[40] Activity in 1921–1923 followed.[25] The next major eruption occurred in 1924. Halemaʻumaʻu, a fully formed pit crater after the 1919 event and the site of a sizable lava lake, first drained, then quickly began sinking into the ground, deepening to nearly 210 m (689 ft) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash. Explosive activity began on May 10 of that year, blowing rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg (99 lb) 60 m (197 ft) out, and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) out as far as 270 m (886 ft), and, after a brief reprieve, intensified through a major blast on May 18, when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption's only fatality. The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns up to and beyond 9 km (6 mi) in height, before slowly petering down and ending by May 28.[38][41] Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit, and ceased completely after 1934.[25] 1952 to 1982 The Mauna Ulu eruption of 1969 generated a 1,000-foot (300 m)-high lava fountain After the Halemaʻumaʻu event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and for a time, completely silent, with all activity confined to the summit.[25] The volcano came alive again in 1952, with an enormous lava fountain 245 m (800 ft) high at Halemaʻumaʻu. Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m (50 and 100 ft) persisted, and the eruption lasted 136 days.[42] Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954, 1955, and 1959, capped by a large event in 1960, when fissure-based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive ʻaʻā flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever-active Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further.[43] From 1960 on, eruptive events occurred frequently until August 2018. The period 1967–1968 saw a particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaʻumaʻu.[25] This event was superseded the very next year by the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption, a large effusive eruption which lasted from May 24, 1969 to July 24, 1974 and added 230 acres (93 ha) of new land to the island. After eruptive activity had died down, there was a magnitude 7.2 earthquake that caused a partial summit collapse, after which activity did not resume at Kīlauea until 1977.[44] At the time, Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history. The eruption created a new vent, covered a large area of land with lava, and added new land to the island. The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters, ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae, where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form. Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano. Early on, fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters (1772 ft) high. In early 1973, an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka.[44] 1983–2018 Main articles: Puʻu ʻŌʻō and Halemaʻumaʻu Puʻu ʻŌʻō at dusk, June 1983 The longest major eruption observed at Kīlauea in modern history occurred from January 1983 to September 2018. It had the longest duration of any observed eruption at this volcano. As of December 2020, it is the twelfth-longest duration volcanic eruption on Earth since 1750.[45] The eruption began on January 3, 1983, along the eastern rift zone. The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into the Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone, sending lava flows down the volcano's slope. In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaʻianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaʻianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km (about 7 mi) to the sea. Between 1986 and 1991, the connection between Chain of Craters Road and Hawaii Route 130 was cut, and the community of Kapa’ahu, the village of Kalapana, and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava.[46] A black sand beach at Kaimū was also engulfed.[47] In 1992, the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō, but continued in the same manner, covering nearly all of the 1983–86 lava flows and large areas of coastline.[48] As of the end of 2016, the east rift zone eruption had produced 4.4 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava, covered 144 km2 (56 sq mi) of land, added 179 ha (442 acres) of land to the island, destroyed 215 structures, and buried 14.3 km (9 mi) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m (115 ft).[49] In addition to the nearly continuous activity at Puʻu ʻOʻo and other vents on the east rift zone, a separate eruption began at Kilauea's summit in March 2008. On March 19, 2008, following several months of increased sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremor, a new vent opened at Halemaʻumaʻu at Kilauea's summit in an explosive eruption. Following this event, the new crater formed in the explosion, informally named the "Overlook Crater," emitted a thick gas plume that obscured views into the vent. Several other explosive events occurred at the vent throughout 2008.[50] On September 5, 2008, scientists observed a lava pond deep within the Overlook Crater for the first time. Beginning in February 2010, a lava pond was visible at the bottom of the crater almost continuously through the beginning of May 2018. Lava briefly overflowed the vent onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu in April and May 2015, October 2016, and April 2018.[50][51][52] 2018 eruptive episodes Main article: 2018 lower Puna eruption Lava from a fissure slowly advanced to the northeast on Hoʻokupu Street in Leilani Estates subdivision (May 5, 2018) Beginning in March 2018, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory began to detect rapid inflation at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō,[53] leading scientists to warn that the increased pressure could lead to the formation of a new vent at Kilauea.[54] Following weeks of increased pressure, the crater floor of the cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō collapsed on April 30, 2018, as magma migrated underground into the lower Puna region of Kilauea's lower east rift zone.[55] Over the next few days, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea's East rift zone, leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, new fissures formed, and lava began erupting in lower Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions.[56][57] A seemingly related 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on May 4.[58] By May 9, 27 houses had been destroyed in Leilani Estates.[59][60] Kilauea Volcano Fissure 8 captured on May 3rd, 2019 By May 21, two lava flows had reached the Pacific Ocean, creating thick clouds of laze (a toxic lava and haze cloud), which is made up of hydrochloric acid and glass particles.[61] By May 31, 87 houses in Leilani Estates and nearby areas had been destroyed by lava. Advancing lava flows caused additional evacuation orders, including the town of Kapoho.[62][63] By June 4, with the lava having crossed through Kapoho and entered the ocean, the confirmed number of houses lost had reached 159.[64] Two weeks later, the confirmed number of homes lost was 533,[65] and as of June 25 it had risen to 657.[66] Effect of the 2018 lower Puna eruption on Kīlauea's summit Two views of Halemaʻumaʻu from roughly the same vantage point. At left is the view from 2008, with a distinct gas plume from the Overlook vent, the location of what would become a long-lived lava lake. At right is a view of Halemaʻumaʻu after the eruptive events of 2018, showing the collapsed crater. Two views of Halemaʻumaʻu from roughly the same vantage point. At left is the view from 2008, with a distinct gas plume from the Overlook vent, the location of what would become a long-lived lava lake. At right is a view of Halemaʻumaʻu after the eruptive events of 2018, showing the collapsed crater. Together with the outbreak of lava in lower Puna, a lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu at Kilauea's summit began to drop on May 2, 2018.[55] The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory warned that the lowering of the lava lake increased the potential for phreatic (steam) explosions at the summit caused by interaction of magma with the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[67] On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air.[68] This marked the beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu.[69] These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August.[70][71] 2019–20: Water lake appears at the summit In late July 2019, a water lake appeared on the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu for the first time in over 200 years,[72] as water from the rebounding water table began entering the crater. Afterward, the crater lake gradually grew in size.[73] On December 1, 2020, the lake was approximately 49 metres (161 ft) deep.[74] Within a month, the water lake would be replaced by a lava lake during the new eruption. 2020–21 summit eruption View of the eruption from outside the summit caldera, on December 20, 2020 On December 20, 2020, at 9:30 PM local time, an eruption broke out within Halemaʻumaʻu at Kīlauea's summit caldera. The US Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory reported that three vents were feeding lava into the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, boiling off the water lake that had been growing since summer 2019 and replacing it with a lava lake.[75] The eruption created a plume that reached 30,000 feet (9,144 m) in elevation. The eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms centered at Kīlauea Caldera on November 30, 2020 and December 2, 2020, the second of which was interpreted as a small intrusion of magma.[4] By the following morning, emergency officials reported that the eruption had stabilized and that two of the three vents remained active and continued to fill the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu with lava.[76] By 7:30 a.m. on December 25, 2020, the lava lake had filled in 176 metres (577 ft) of the crater, and the level of the lake was continuing to rise.[77] On January 8, 2021, the depth of the lava lake had increased to 636 feet (194 m).[78] By February 24, the depth of the lava lake in the western, active portion had increased to 216 metres (709 ft). A spatter cone had also formed around the western vent.[79] On May 26, 2021, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory announced that Kīlauea was no longer erupting. Lava supply to the lava lake appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lava lake had completely crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23. At the time activity ceased, the lava lake was 229 metres (751 ft) deep. According to the observatory, it is "possible that the Halema‘uma‘u vent could resume eruption or that Kīlauea is entering a period of quiescence prior the next eruption."[12] Hazards Future threats In 2018, the United States Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment gave Kīlauea an overall threat score of 263, and ranked it first among volcanoes in the United States most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.[80] There was concern that the presence of a water lake in Halemaʻumaʻu following the 2018 summit collapse meant that Kīlauea's next summit eruption might be explosive if magma rose rapidly to the surface.[73] However, when Kīlauea erupted in December 2020, the eruption was non-explosive in nature, with three vents feeding magma into the lake and boiling off the water. Volcanic Explosivity Index The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI; the higher the number, the more explosive) to all except six of Kīlauea's ninety-six known eruptions of the last 11,700 years. The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4.[81] The 1983–2018 eruption has a VEI of 3.[82] The eruptions of 1820, 1924, 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2. The eruptions of 680, 1050, 1490, 1500, 1610, 1868 and four eruptions in 1961 have a VEI of 1. The other seventy-four eruptions have a VEI of 0.[81] Volcanic Explosivity Index for Kīlauea VEI Number of Holocene eruptions for which a VEI has been assigned (total=91) VEI 0 75 VEI 1 10 VEI 2 4 VEI 3 1 VEI 4 1 Ecology Background ʻŌhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha) growing on a barren lava field dating from 1986, formerly the village of Kalapana, Hawaii. The myrtle in this picture, taken in 2009, may have since been covered over—fresh flows in 2010 partially re-covered the area. Because of its position more than 3,000 km (1,864 mi) from the nearest continental landmass, the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology. The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth, the result of an isolated evolutionary lineage sheltered from external biotic influence; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development, and an estimated third of the island's natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct.[83] Kīlauea's ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself;[33] lava flows often overrun sections of the volcano's forests and burn them down, and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life. Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa, and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic "deserts" yet to be recolonized.[84] Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominantly from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcano's height, result in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank. The volcano's ecology is further complicated by height, though not nearly as much as with its other, far taller neighbors, and by the local distribution of volcanic products, making for varied soil conditions. The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and receives more than 75 in (191 cm) mean annual rainfall, and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community; farther south, the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in (127 cm) mean annual rainfall, and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment.[85] Ecosystems The 'amakihi (Chlorodrepanis virens) is one of the many birds that live on the volcano's flanks. Much of Kīlauea's southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, where a’e ferns, ʻōhiʻa trees (Metrosideros polymorpha), and hapu’u of the genus Cibotium are common.[86] The park hosts a large variety of bird species, including the 'apapane (Himatione sanguinea); the 'amakihi (Hemignathus virens); the 'i'iwi (Vestiaria coccinea); the ‘ōma’o (Myadestes obscurus), the ʻelepaio (Chasiempis sp.); and the endangered 'akepa (Loxops coccineus), 'akiapola'au (Hemignathus munroi), nēnē (Branta sandvicensis), ʻuaʻu (Pterodroma sandwichensis), and ʻio (Buteo solitarius) species.[87] The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites on the island.[88] Some of the area alongside Kīlauea's southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert. Although not a "true" desert (rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1,000 mm (39 in) a year), precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3.4, greatly hampering regional plant growth.[89] The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable. Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent.[90] Kīlauea's northern lowland wet-forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve. At 27,785 acres (11,244 ha), Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiʻi's largest lowland wet forest reserve, and is home to rare plant species including hāpuʻu ferns (Cibotium spp.), 'ie'ie vines (Freycinetia arborea), and kōpiko (Psychotria mariniana), some of which play a role in limiting invasive species' spread. ʻOpeʻapeʻa (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) ʻio (Buteo solitarius), common ʻamakihi (Hemignathus virens), and nananana makakiʻi (Theridion grallator) live in the trees. There are thought to be many more as-yet-undocumented species within the forest.[91][92] Wao Kele's primary forest tree is ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).[93] Human history Ancient Hawaiian The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful.[94] Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source.[95] Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates.[96] The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans).[97] The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In Hawaiian mythology, the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa, giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands.[95] Kīlauea itself means "spewing" or "much spreading" in Hawaiian, referencing its high state of activity,[19] and in Hawaiian mythology, Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.[98] It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaʻa was centered; Halemaʻumaʻu, "House of the ʻamaʻumaʻu fern", derives its name from the struggle between the two gods. Kamapuaʻa, hard-pressed by Pele's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will, covered the feature, a favorite residence of the goddess, with fern fronds. Choked by trapped smoke, Pele emerged. Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction, the other gods called a draw and divided the island between them, with Kamapuaʻa getting the moist windward northeastern side, and Pele directing the drier Kona (or leeward) side. The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu is said to be a product of the legendary struggle.[99] This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long-term welfare of the environment. These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast.[95] Modern era A view from Kīlauea's eastern rift zone captured during a USGS expedition. The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778.[100] The first non-native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis, an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano. He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features, establishing a premise for future explorations of the volcano.[101] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-A, a poem by L. E. L. Another missionary, C. S. Stewart, U.S.N., wrote of it in his journal 'A Residence in the Sandwich Islands', which Letitia Elizabeth Landon quoted from in the notes to her poem 'The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-A' in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832. One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana, who, staying with the missionary Titus Coan, studied the island's volcanoes in detail for decades first-hand.[102] Dana visited Kīlauea's summit and described it in detail in 1840.[103] After publishing a summary paper in 1852, he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano, instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa; it was not until another geologist, C. E. Dutton, had elaborated on Dana's research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity.[104]:154–155 The next era of Kīlauea's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano's rim in 1912. The first permanent such installation in the United States, the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar, head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy, he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study, and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment. After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii, Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and, whilst its head between 1912 and 1940, pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes.[105] After initial funding ran out, the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service, the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and the National Park Service, before settling on the USGS, under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947. The main building has been moved twice since establishment, and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea's caldera.[106] NASA used the area to geologically train the Apollo Astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, planning traverses, collecting samples and taking photographs. Training took place in April 1969, April 1970, December 1970, December 1971, and June 1972. Astronauts of Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 used this training on the Moon. Notable geologist instructors included William R. Muehlberger.[107] Tourism See also: Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park View from the edge of Kilauea Iki: across the caldera, Halemaʻumaʻu is emitting fume on the left side of the caldera, while Mauna Loa towers above in the background Kīlauea has been a tourist attraction since the 1840s, and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim, including Volcano House, which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[108] In 1891, Lorrin A. Thurston, grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcano's rim, began campaigning for a park on the volcano's slopes, an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle, Jr. in 1903. Thurston, who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper, printed editorials in favor of the idea; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create "Kilauea National Park". Following endorsements from John Muir, Henry Cabot Lodge, and former President Theodore Roosevelt (in opposition to local ranchers) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana'ole, House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1, 1916. It was the 11th National Park in the United States, and the first in a Territory;[109] a few weeks later, the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law, creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system.[110] Originally called "Hawaii National Park", it was split from the Haleakala National Park on September 22, 1960. Today, the park, renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction, and, since 1987, a World Heritage Site.[111] In its early days, tourism was a relatively new concept, but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959, the year Hawaiʻi became a state. Today, tourism is driven by the island's exotic tropical locations,[112] and Kīlauea, being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption, was a major part of the island's tourist draw.[113] According to the National Park Service, Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2.6 million people annually, most of whom proceeded to visit the volcano from the Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance.[114] The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum was also a popular tourist stop. Located at the edge of Kīlauea Caldera, the museum's observation deck offered the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaʻumaʻu; however, the museum closed indefinitely after the building housing it sustained structural damage from earthquakes associated with the 2018 eruptive episodes.[115] The Volcano House provides lodging within the park, while additional housing options are available in the nearby Volcano Village. Visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp. The park provides a number of hiking trails, points of interest, and guided ranger programs.[116][117]
  • Condition: Used
  • Region: Hawaii
  • Theme: Photographs
  • Year Manufactured: 1924
  • City: Hilo

PicClick Insights - Kīlauea Volcano near Hilo Bay Hawaii Hawaiian Photographs 1924 Old Vintage PicClick Exclusive

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