PRUSSIA ROYALTY WEDDING Christian Sigismund Prince & Nina Countess AUTOGRAPH

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US, Item: 176253070342 PRUSSIA ROYALTY WEDDING Christian Sigismund Prince & Nina Countess AUTOGRAPH. Wedding of Christian Sigismund Prince of Prussia and Nina Countess von Reventlow at Gut Damp, Germany, 1984  SIGNED CARD WITH PHOTO  . . . Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia EDIT Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia (born March 14 1946) is one of the three paternal uncles of Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, head of the House of Hohenzollern since 1994, which resigned over Germany until 1918. He is the youngest of four sons born to Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907-1994) and Grand Duchess Kira Kirillovna of Russia (1909-1967). He was the heir presumptive to the headship of the deposed House of Hohenzollern from the death of his father to 20 January 2013, when Georg Friedrich fathered twin sons, relegating Christian-Sigismund to a more remote place in the Line of succession to the former German throne. Biography-Dynastic Status His two eldest brothers, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (born 1939) and Prince Michael (born 1940) married commers in the mid-1960s and renounced their historical rights as Prussian princes. In 1975 his brother Prince Louis, Ferdinand Jr. 1944-1977), dynastically wed a mediatized Countess Donata of Castell-Rudenhausen (born 1950), but died accidentally during German military maneuvers two years later, leaving an only son, Georg Friedrich, as heir to the Hohenzollern legacy. Aware that his father strongly desired that he marry dynastically after his eldest brothers' morganatic marriages, Christian Sigismund nonetheless maintained that he did not feel unduly pressed: his eventual marriage to a countess, although non-mediatized, was also accepted as "equal" by his father. Prior to his death, Louis Ferdinand Sr. made Georg Friedrich his principal heir, designing Christian Sigismund as guardian responsible for his education and management of his financial share in the Hohenzollern trust during his minority. However, by the time of his nephew's marriage, alienation among the male dynasts in the family had become entrenched. After their father's death, Friedrich Wilhelm and Michael, whose marriages to commoners had ended in divorced, retracted their renunciations during their second marriages. Christian Sigismund's marriage having been recognized, he and his son remained Hohenzollern dynasts; nonetheless he joined his two surviving brothers in filing a lawsuit against Georg Friedrich to dissolve the Hohenzollern trust and obtain larger appanages. None of three brothers attended their nephew's wedding in 2011, although Christian Sigismund's son and younger daughter were in attendance. Marriage and Issue Prince Christian-Sigismund has three children. His first child was born from a relationship with Christiane Grandmontagne (later daughter-in-law of Count Lennart Bernadotte of Wisborg), whom he had legitimized: -Isabelle-Alexandra Angelique Anne-Kathrine Grandmontagne, Princess of Prussia (born 18 September 1969) He also has two children with his wife Countess Nina Helene Lydia Alexandra Reventlow (born 13 March 1954) whom he married on September 29 1984 at Gut Damp Ostsee in Holstein, daughter of Count Carl Ludwig Reventlow, and his second wife Nina Pryadkin. -Prince Christian Ludwig Michael Friedrich Ferdinand of Prussia (born 16 May 1986), Princess Irina Maria Kira of Prussia (born 4 July 1988) Title 14 March 1946 His Royal Highness Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia House: Hohenzollern




Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia EDIT Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia (born March 14 1946) is one of the three paternal uncles of Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, head of the House of Hohenzollern since 1994, which resigned over Germany until 1918. He is the youngest of four sons born to Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907-1994) and Grand Duchess Kira Kirillovna of Russia (1909-1967). He was the heir presumptive to the headship of the deposed House of Hohenzollern from the death of his father to 20 January 2013, when Georg Friedrich fathered twin sons, relegating Christian-Sigismund to a more remote place in the Line of succession to the former German throne. Biography-Dynastic Status His two eldest brothers, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (born 1939) and Prince Michael (born 1940) married commers in the mid-1960s and renounced their historical rights as Prussian princes. In 1975 his brother Prince Louis, Ferdinand Jr. 1944-1977), dynastically wed a mediatized Countess Donata of Castell-Rudenhausen (born 1950), but died accidentally during German military maneuvers two years later, leaving an only son, Georg Friedrich, as heir to the Hohenzollern legacy. Aware that his father strongly desired that he marry dynastically after his eldest brothers' morganatic marriages, Christian Sigismund nonetheless maintained that he did not feel unduly pressed: his eventual marriage to a countess, although non-mediatized, was also accepted as "equal" by his father. Prior to his death, Louis Ferdinand Sr. made Georg Friedrich his principal heir, designing Christian Sigismund as guardian responsible for his education and management of his financial share in the Hohenzollern trust during his minority. However, by the time of his nephew's marriage, alienation among the male dynasts in the family had become entrenched. After their father's death, Friedrich Wilhelm and Michael, whose marriages to commoners had ended in divorced, retracted their renunciations during their second marriages. Christian Sigismund's marriage having been recognized, he and his son remained Hohenzollern dynasts; nonetheless he joined his two surviving brothers in filing a lawsuit against Georg Friedrich to dissolve the Hohenzollern trust and obtain larger appanages. None of three brothers attended their nephew's wedding in 2011, although Christian Sigismund's son and younger daughter were in attendance. Marriage and Issue Prince Christian-Sigismund has three children. His first child was born from a relationship with Christiane Grandmontagne (later daughter-in-law of Count Lennart Bernadotte of Wisborg), whom he had legitimized: -Isabelle-Alexandra Angelique Anne-Kathrine Grandmontagne, Princess of Prussia (born 18 September 1969) He also has two children with his wife Countess Nina Helene Lydia Alexandra Reventlow (born 13 March 1954) whom he married on September 29 1984 at Gut Damp Ostsee in Holstein, daughter of Count Carl Ludwig Reventlow, and his second wife Nina Pryadkin. -Prince Christian Ludwig Michael Friedrich Ferdinand of Prussia (born 16 May 1986), Princess Irina Maria Kira of Prussia (born 4 July 1988) Title 14 March 1946 His Royal Highness Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia House: Hohenzollern Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia EDIT Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia (born March 14 1946) is one of the three paternal uncles of Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, head of the House of Hohenzollern since 1994, which resigned over Germany until 1918. He is the youngest of four sons born to Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907-1994) and Grand Duchess Kira Kirillovna of Russia (1909-1967). He was the heir presumptive to the headship of the deposed House of Hohenzollern from the death of his father to 20 January 2013, when Georg Friedrich fathered twin sons, relegating Christian-Sigismund to a more remote place in the Line of succession to the former German throne. Biography-Dynastic Status His two eldest brothers, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (born 1939) and Prince Michael (born 1940) married commers in the mid-1960s and renounced their historical rights as Prussian princes. In 1975 his brother Prince Louis, Ferdinand Jr. 1944-1977), dynastically wed a mediatized Countess Donata of Castell-Rudenhausen (born 1950), but died accidentally during German military maneuvers two years later, leaving an only son, Georg Friedrich, as heir to the Hohenzollern legacy. Aware that his father strongly desired that he marry dynastically after his eldest brothers' morganatic marriages, Christian Sigismund nonetheless maintained that he did not feel unduly pressed: his eventual marriage to a countess, although non-mediatized, was also accepted as "equal" by his father. Prior to his death, Louis Ferdinand Sr. made Georg Friedrich his principal heir, designing Christian Sigismund as guardian responsible for his education and management of his financial share in the Hohenzollern trust during his minority. However, by the time of his nephew's marriage, alienation among the male dynasts in the family had become entrenched. After their father's death, Friedrich Wilhelm and Michael, whose marriages to commoners had ended in divorced, retracted their renunciations during their second marriages. Christian Sigismund's marriage having been recognized, he and his son remained Hohenzollern dynasts; nonetheless he joined his two surviving brothers in filing a lawsuit against Georg Friedrich to dissolve the Hohenzollern trust and obtain larger appanages. None of three brothers attended their nephew's wedding in 2011, although Christian Sigismund's son and younger daughter were in attendance. Marriage and Issue Prince Christian-Sigismund has three children. His first child was born from a relationship with Christiane Grandmontagne (later daughter-in-law of Count Lennart Bernadotte of Wisborg), whom he had legitimized: -Isabelle-Alexandra Angelique Anne-Kathrine Grandmontagne, Princess of Prussia (born 18 September 1969) He also has two children with his wife Countess Nina Helene Lydia Alexandra Reventlow (born 13 March 1954) whom he married on September 29 1984 at Gut Damp Ostsee in Holstein, daughter of Count Carl Ludwig Reventlow, and his second wife Nina Pryadkin. -Prince Christian Ludwig Michael Friedrich Ferdinand of Prussia (born 16 May 1986), Princess Irina Maria Kira of Prussia (born 4 July 1988) Title 14 March 1946 His Royal Highness Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia House: Hohenzollern Prussia (/ˈprʌʃə/; German: Preußen, pronounced [ˈpʁɔʏsn̩] ⓘ, Old Prussian: Prūsa or Prūsija) was a German state located on most of the North European Plain, also occupying southern and eastern regions. It formed the German Empire when it united the German states in 1871. It was de facto dissolved by an emergency decree transferring powers of the Prussian government to German Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932 and de jure by an Allied decree in 1947. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, expanding its size with the Prussian Army. Prussia, with its capital at Königsberg and then, when it became the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Berlin, decisively shaped the history of Germany. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians; in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights – an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders – conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Danzig (modern-day Gdańsk). Their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany, and, in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The imposed Second Peace of Thorn (1466) split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, becoming a province of Poland, and the eastern part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia, a feudal fief of the Crown of Poland up to 1657. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom.[3][4] It became increasingly large and powerful in the 18th and 19th centuries. It had a major voice in European affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great (1740–1786). At the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleon's defeat, Prussia acquired rich new territories, including the coal-rich Ruhr. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. The Kingdom ended in 1918 along with other German monarchies that were terminated by the German Revolution. In the Weimar Republic, the Free State of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. Subsequently, it was effectively dismantled into Nazi German Gaue in 1935. Nevertheless, some Prussian ministries were kept and Hermann Göring remained in his role as Minister President of Prussia until the end of World War II. Former eastern territories of Germany that made up a significant part of Prussia lost the majority of their German population after 1945 as the Polish People's Republic and the Soviet Union both absorbed these territories and had most of its German inhabitants expelled by 1950. Prussia, deemed "a bearer of militarism and reaction" by the Allies, was officially abolished by an Allied declaration in 1947. The international status of the former eastern territories of the Kingdom of Prussia was disputed until the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany in 1990, but its return to Germany remains a cause among far-right politicians, the Federation of Expellees and various political revanchists and irredentists. The terms "Prussian" and "Prussianism" have often been used, especially outside Germany, to denote the militarism, military professionalism, aggressiveness, and conservatism of the Junker class of landed aristocrats in the East who dominated first Prussia and then the German Empire. Symbols History of Brandenburg and Prussia   Northern March (965 – 983) Lutician federation (983 – 12th century) Old Prussians (pre – 13th century) Margraviate of Brandenburg (1157–1618) Teutonic Order (1224 – 1525) Elector of Brandenburg (1356 – 1806) Duchy of Prussia (1525 – 1618) Malbork Voivodeship and Prince-Bishopric of Warmia within Royal (Polish) Prussia (Poland 1454/1466 – 1772) Brandenburg-Prussia (1618 – 1701) Kingdom of Prussia (1701 – 1918) Free State of Prussia (1918 – 1947) Present Działdowo area (from 1918) Klaipėda Region (1920–1939, from 1945) Warmia, Masuria within Recovered Territories (from 1945) Kaliningrad Oblast (from 1945) Berlin and Brandenburg (1947–1952, from 1990) The main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white national colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights and by the Hohenzollern dynasty. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a black cross with gold insert and black imperial eagle. The combination of the black and white colours with the white and red Hanseatic colours of the free cities Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, as well as of Brandenburg, resulted in the black-white-red commercial flag of the North German Confederation, which became the flag of the German Empire in 1871.[citation needed] Suum cuique ("to each, his own"), the motto of the Order of the Black Eagle created by King Frederick I in 1701, was often associated with the whole of Prussia. The Iron Cross, a military decoration created by King Frederick William III in 1813, was also commonly associated with the country.[citation needed] The region, originally populated by Baltic Old Prussians who were Christianised, became a favoured location for immigration by (later mainly Protestant) Germans (see Ostsiedlung), as well as Poles and Lithuanians along the border regions. Territory Before its abolition, the territory of the Free State of Prussia included the provinces of East Prussia; Brandenburg; Saxony (including much of the present-day state of Saxony-Anhalt and parts of the state of Thuringia in Germany); Pomerania; Rhineland; Westphalia; Silesia (without Austrian Silesia); Schleswig-Holstein; Hanover; Hesse-Nassau; and a small detached area in the south called Hohenzollern, the ancestral home of the Prussian ruling family. The land that the Teutonic Knights occupied was flat and covered with fertile soil. The area was perfectly suited to the large-scale raising of wheat.[5] The rise of early Prussia was based on the raising and selling of wheat. Teutonic Prussia became known as the "bread basket of Western Europe" (in German, Kornkammer, or granary). The port cities which rose on the back of this wheat production included: Stettin in Pomerania (now Szczecin, Poland); Danzig in Prussia (now Gdańsk, Poland); Riga in Livonia (now Riga, Latvia); Königsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia); and Memel in Prussia (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). Wheat production and trade brought Prussia into a close relationship with the Hanseatic League during the period of time from 1356 (official founding of the Hanseatic League) until the decline of the League in about 1500. The expansion of Prussia based on its connection with the Hanseatic League cut both Poland and Lithuania off from the coast of the Baltic Sea and trade abroad.[6] This meant that Poland and Lithuania would be traditional enemies of Prussia, which was still called the Teutonic Knights.[7] History Further information: Duchy of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia, and Free State of Prussia Teutonic Order Situation after the conquest in the late 13th century. Areas in purple under control of the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order (orange) following the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) Main article: Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights In 1211 King Andrew II of Hungary granted Burzenland in Transylvania as a fiefdom to the Teutonic Knights, a German military order of crusading knights, headquartered in the Kingdom of Jerusalem at Acre. In 1225 he expelled them, and they transferred their operations to the Baltic Sea area. Konrad I, the Polish Duke of Masovia, had unsuccessfully attempted to conquer pagan Prussia in crusades in 1219 and 1222.[8] In 1226 Duke Konrad invited the Teutonic Knights to conquer the Baltic Prussian tribes on his borders. During 60 years of struggles against the Old Prussians, the Order established an independent state that came to control Prūsa. After the Livonian Brothers of the Sword joined the Teutonic Order in 1237, the Order also controlled Livonia (now Latvia and Estonia). Around 1252 they finished the conquest of the northernmost Prussian tribe of the Skalvians as well as of the western Baltic Curonians, and erected Memel Castle, which developed into the major port city of Memel. The Treaty of Melno defined the final border between Prussia and the adjoining Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1422. The Hanseatic League officially formed in northern Europe in 1356 as a group of trading cities. This League came to hold a monopoly on all trade leaving the interior of Europe and Scandinavia and on all sailing trade in the Baltic Sea for foreign countries.[9] In the course of the Ostsiedlung (German eastward expansion) process, settlers were invited[by whom?], bringing changes in the ethnic composition as well as in language, culture, and law of the eastern borders of the German lands. As a majority of these settlers were Germans, Low German became the dominant language. The Knights of the Teutonic Order were subordinate to the papacy and to the Holy Roman Emperor. Their initially close relationship with the Polish Crown deteriorated after they conquered Polish-controlled Pomerelia and Danzig in 1308. Eventually, Poland and Lithuania, allied through the Union of Krewo (1385), defeated the Knights in the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410. The Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) began when the Prussian Confederation, a coalition of Hanseatic cities of western Prussia, rebelled against the Order and requested help from the Polish king, Casimir IV Jagiellon. The Teutonic Knights were forced to acknowledge the sovereignty of, and to pay tribute to Casimir IV in the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), losing western Prussia (Royal Prussia) to Poland in the process. Pursuant to the Second Peace of Thorn, two Prussian states were established.[10][need quotation to verify] During the period of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, mercenaries from the Holy Roman Empire were granted lands by the Order and gradually formed a new landed Prussian nobility, from which the Junkers would evolve to take a major role in the militarization of Prussia and, later, Germany.[11] Duchy of Prussia Main article: Duchy of Prussia Prussian Homage by Jan Matejko. After admitting the dependence of Prussia to the Polish Crown, Albert of Prussia receives Ducal Prussia as a fief from King Sigismund I the Old of Poland in 1525. Main articles: Prussian Homage, Duchy of Prussia, and Crown of the Kingdom of Poland On 10 April 1525, after signing of the Treaty of Kraków, which officially ended the Polish–Teutonic War (1519–21), in the main square of the Polish capital Kraków, Albert I resigned his position as Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and received the title "Duke of Prussia" from King Zygmunt I the Old of Poland. As a symbol of vassalage, Albert received a standard with the Prussian coat of arms from the Polish king. The black Prussian eagle on the flag was augmented with a letter "S" (for Sigismundus) and had a crown placed around its neck as a symbol of submission to Poland. Albert I, a member of a cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern became a Lutheran Protestant and secularized the Order's Prussian territories.[12] This was the area east of the mouth of the Vistula river, later sometimes called "Prussia proper". For the first time, these lands came into the hands of a branch of the Hohenzollern family, who already ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg, since the 15th century. Furthermore, with his renunciation of the Order, Albert could now marry and produce legitimate heirs. Brandenburg-Prussia Main articles: Brandenburg-Prussia and Holy Roman Empire Brandenburg and Prussia united two generations later. In 1594 Duchess Anna of Prussia, granddaughter of Albert I and daughter of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia (reigned 1568–1618), married her cousin Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg. When Albert Frederick died in 1618 without male heirs, John Sigismund was granted the right of succession to the Duchy of Prussia, then still a Polish fief. From this time the Duchy of Prussia was in personal union with the Margraviate of Brandenburg. The resulting state, known as Brandenburg-Prussia, consisted of geographically disconnected territories in Prussia, Brandenburg, and the Rhineland lands of Cleves and Mark. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), various armies repeatedly marched across the disconnected Hohenzollern lands, especially the occupying Swedes. The ineffective and militarily weak Elector George William (1619–1640) fled from Berlin to Königsberg, the historic capital of the Duchy of Prussia, in 1637. His successor, Frederick William I (1640–1688), reformed the army to defend the lands. Frederick William I went to Warsaw in 1641 to render homage to King Władysław IV Vasa of Poland for the Duchy of Prussia, which was still held in fief from the Polish crown. In January 1656, during the first phase of the Second Northern War (1654–1660), he received the duchy as a fief from the Swedish king who later granted him full sovereignty in the Treaty of Labiau (November 1656). In 1657 the Polish king renewed this grant in the treaties of Wehlau and Bromberg. With Prussia, the Brandenburg Hohenzollern dynasty now held a territory free of any feudal obligations, which constituted the basis for their later elevation to kings. The "Great Elector" and his wife Frederick William I succeeded in organizing the electorate by establishing an absolute monarchy in Brandenburg-Prussia, an achievement for which he became known as the "Great Elector". Above all, he emphasised the importance of a powerful military to protect the state's disconnected territories, while the Edict of Potsdam (1685) opened Brandenburg-Prussia for the immigration of Protestant refugees (especially Huguenots), and he established a bureaucracy to carry out state administration efficiently.[13] Kingdom of Prussia Main article: Kingdom of Prussia Frederick I, King in Prussia On 18 January 1701, Frederick William's son, Elector Frederick III, elevated Prussia from a duchy to a kingdom and crowned himself King Frederick I. In the Crown Treaty of 16 November 1700, Leopold I, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, allowed Frederick only to title himself "King in Prussia", not "King of Prussia". The state of Brandenburg-Prussia became commonly known as "Prussia", although most of its territory, in Brandenburg, Pomerania, and western Germany, lay outside Prussia proper. The Prussian state grew in splendour during the reign of Frederick I, who sponsored the arts at the expense of the treasury.[14] Frederick I was succeeded by his son, Frederick William I (1713–1740), the austere "Soldier King", who did not care for the arts but was thrifty and practical.[15] He was the main creator of the vaunted Prussian bureaucracy and the professionalised standing army, which he developed into one of the most powerful in Europe. His troops only briefly saw action during the Great Northern War. In view of the size of the army in relation to the total population, Mirabeau said later: "Prussia, is not a state with an army, but an army with a state."[citation needed] Frederick William also settled more than 20,000 Protestant refugees from Salzburg in thinly populated East Prussia, which was eventually extended to the west bank of the Neman river, and other regions. In the Treaty of Stockholm (1720), he acquired half of Swedish Pomerania.[16] King Frederick William I, "the Soldier-King" Frederick William I died in 1740 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick II, whose accomplishments led to his reputation as "Frederick the Great".[17] As crown prince, Frederick had focused, primarily, on philosophy and the arts.[18] He was an accomplished flute player. In 1740, Prussian troops crossed over the undefended border of Silesia and rapidly conquered the region. Silesia was the richest province of Habsburg Austria.[19] It signalled the beginning of three Silesian Wars (1740–1763).[20] The First Silesian War (1740–1742) and the Second Silesian War (1744–1745) have, historically, been grouped together with the general European war called the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI had died on 20 October 1740. He was succeeded to the throne by his daughter, Maria Theresa. By defeating the Austrian Army at the Battle of Mollwitz on 10 April 1741, Frederick succeeded in conquering Lower Silesia (the northwestern half of Silesia).[21] In the next year, 1742, he conquered Upper Silesia (the southeastern half). Furthermore, in the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War) Frederick won a victory over Austria at the Battle of Lobositz on 1 October 1756. In spite of some victories afterward, his situation became far less comfortable the following years, as he failed in his attempts to knock Austria out of the war and was gradually reduced to a desperate defensive war. However, he never gave up and on 3 November 1760 the Prussian king won another battle, the hard-fought Battle of Torgau. Despite being several times on the verge of defeat Frederick, allied with Great Britain, Hanover and Hesse-Kassel, was finally able to hold the whole of Silesia against a coalition of Saxony, the Habsburg monarchy, France and Russia.[22] Voltaire, a close friend of the king, once described Frederick the Great's Prussia by saying "...it was Sparta in the morning, Athens in the afternoon." King Frederick II, "the Great" Silesia, full of rich soils and prosperous manufacturing towns, became a vital region to Prussia, greatly increasing the nation's area, population, and wealth.[23] Success on the battleground against Austria and other powers proved Prussia's status as one of the great powers of Europe. The Silesian Wars began more than a century of rivalry and conflict between Prussia and Austria as the two most powerful states operating within the Holy Roman Empire (although both had extensive territory outside the empire).[24] In 1744, the County of East Frisia fell to Prussia following the extinction of its ruling Cirksena dynasty. In the last 23 years of his reign until 1786, Frederick II, who understood himself as the "first servant of the state", promoted the development of Prussian areas such as the Oderbruch. At the same time he built up Prussia's military power and participated in the First Partition of Poland with Austria and Russia in 1772, an act that geographically connected the Brandenburg territories with those of Prussia proper. The partition also added Polish Royal Prussia to the kingdom, allowing Frederick to re-style himself King of Prussia. During this period, he also opened Prussia's borders to immigrants fleeing from religious persecution in other parts of Europe, such as the Huguenots. Prussia became a safe haven in much the same way that the United States welcomed immigrants seeking freedom in the 19th century.[25] Frederick the Great (reigned 1740–1786) practised enlightened absolutism. He built the world's best army, and usually won his many wars. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice.[26] He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States.[25] Napoleonic Wars Main articles: Napoleonic Wars, Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, and War of the Sixth Coalition § War in Germany Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1600–1795 During the reign of King Frederick William II (1786–1797), Prussia annexed additional Polish territory through the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 and the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. His successor, Frederick William III (1797–1840), announced the union of the Prussian Lutheran and Reformed churches into one church.[27] King Frederick William III Prussia took a leading part in the French Revolutionary Wars, but remained quiet for more than a decade because of the Peace of Basel of 1795, only to go once more to war with France in 1806 as negotiations with that country over the allocation of the spheres of influence in Germany failed. Prussia suffered a devastating defeat against Napoleon's troops in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, leading Frederick William III and his family to flee temporarily to Memel. Under the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, the state lost about one-third of its area, including the areas gained from the second and third Partitions of Poland, which now fell to the Duchy of Warsaw. Beyond that, the king was obliged to pay a large indemnity, to cap his army at 42,000 men, and to let the French garrison troops throughout Prussia, effectively making the kingdom a French satellite.[28] In response to this defeat, reformers such as Stein and Hardenberg set about modernising the Prussian state. Among their reforms were the liberation of peasants from serfdom, the Emancipation of Jews and making full citizens of them. The school system was rearranged, and in 1818 free trade was introduced. The process of army reform ended in 1813 with the introduction of compulsory military service for men.[29] By 1813, Prussia could mobilize almost 300,000 soldiers, more than half of which were conscripts of the Landwehr of variable quality. The rest consisted of regular soldiers that were deemed excellent by most observers, and very determined to repair the humiliation of 1806. After the defeat of Napoleon in Russia, Prussia quit its alliance with France and took part in the Sixth Coalition during the "Wars of Liberation" (Befreiungskriege) against the French occupation. Prussian troops under Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher contributed crucially (alongside the British and Dutch) to the final victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo of June 1815. Prussia's reward in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna was the recovery of her lost territories, as well as the whole of the Rhineland, Westphalia, 40% of Saxony and some other territories. These western lands were of vital importance because they included the Ruhr region, the centre of Germany's fledgling industrialisation, especially in the arms industry. These territorial gains also meant the doubling of Prussia's population. In exchange, Prussia withdrew from areas of central Poland to allow the creation of Congress Poland under Russian sovereignty.[28] In 1815 Prussia became part of the German Confederation. Wars of liberation Main article: German revolutions of 1848–49 King Frederick William IV The first half of the 19th century saw a prolonged struggle in Germany between liberals, who wanted a united, federal Germany under a democratic constitution, and conservatives, who wanted to maintain Germany as a patchwork of independent, monarchical states with Prussia and Austria competing for influence. One small movement that signalled a desire for German unification in this period was the Burschenschaft student movement, by students who encouraged the use of the black-red-gold flag, discussions of a unified German nation, and a progressive, liberal political system. Because of Prussia's size and economic importance, smaller states began to join its free trade area in the 1820s. Prussia benefited greatly from the creation in 1834 of the German Customs Union (Zollverein), which included most German states but excluded Austria.[27] In 1848 the liberals saw an opportunity when revolutions broke out across Europe. Alarmed, King Frederick William IV agreed to convene a National Assembly and grant a constitution. When the Frankfurt Parliament offered Frederick William the crown of a united Germany, he refused on the grounds that he would not accept a crown from a revolutionary assembly without the sanction of Germany's other monarchs.[30] The Frankfurt Parliament was forced to dissolve in 1849, and Frederick William issued a constitution by his own authority in 1850. This conservative document provided for a two-house parliament, the Landtag of Prussia. The lower house, or Prussian House of Representatives was elected by all males over the age of 25. They were divided into three classes whose votes were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid. In one typical election, the first class (with those who paid the most in taxes) included 4% of voters and the third class (with those who paid the least) had 82%, yet each group chose the same number of electors.[31] The system but assured dominance by the more well-to-do men of the population. The upper house, the Prussian House of Lords, was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority, and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces.[32] The constitution nevertheless contained a number of liberal elements such as the introduction of jury courts and a catalog of fundamental rights that included freedom of religion, speech and the press.[33] Wars of unification Otto von Bismarck In 1862 King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia. Bismarck was determined to defeat both the liberals and conservatives and increase Prussian supremacy and influence among the German states. There has been much debate as to whether Bismarck actually planned to create a united Germany when he set out on this journey, or whether he simply took advantage of the circumstances that fell into place. Bismarck curried support from large sections of the people by promising to lead the fight for greater German unification. He successfully guided Prussia through three wars, which unified Germany and brought William the position of German Emperor.[34] Schleswig Wars The Kingdom of Denmark was at the time in personal union with the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, both of which had close ties with each other, although only Holstein was part of the German Confederation. When the Danish government tried to integrate Schleswig, but not Holstein, into the Danish state, Prussia led the German Confederation against Denmark in the First War of Schleswig (1848–1851). Because Russia supported Austria, Prussia also conceded predominance in the German Confederation to Austria in the Punctation of Olmütz in 1850, resulting in a return to the status quo. In 1863, Denmark introduced a shared constitution for Denmark and Schleswig. This led to conflict with the German Confederation, which authorised the occupation of Holstein by the Confederation, from which Danish forces withdrew. In 1864, Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border between Holstein and Schleswig initiating the Second War of Schleswig. The Austro-Prussian forces defeated the Danes, who surrendered both territories. In the resulting Gastein Convention of 1865 Prussia took over the administration of Schleswig while Austria assumed that of Holstein.[35] Austro-Prussian War Main article: Austro-Prussian War Expansion of Prussia, 1807–1871 Bismarck realised that the dual administration of Schleswig and Holstein was only a temporary solution, and tensions rose between Prussia and Austria. The struggle for supremacy in Germany then led to the Austro-Prussian War (1866), triggered by the dispute over Schleswig and Holstein, with Bismarck using proposed injustices as the reason for war. On the Austrian side stood the south German states (including Bavaria and Württemberg), some central German states (including Saxony), and Hanover in the north. On the side of Prussia were Italy, most north German states, and some smaller central German states. Eventually, the better-armed Prussian troops won the crucial victory at the Battle of Königgrätz under Helmuth von Moltke the Elder. The century-long struggle between Berlin and Vienna for the dominance of Germany was now over. As a sideshow in this war, Prussia defeated Hanover in the Battle of Langensalza (1866). While Hanover hoped in vain for help from Britain (as they had previously been in personal union), Britain stayed out of a confrontation with a continental great power and Prussia satisfied its desire for merging the once separate territories and gaining strong economic and strategic power, particularly from the full access to the resources of the Ruhr.[36] Bismarck desired Austria as an ally in the future, and so he declined to annex any Austrian territory. But in the Peace of Prague in 1866, Prussia annexed four of Austria's allies in northern and central Germany – Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and Frankfurt. Prussia also won full control of Schleswig-Holstein. As a result of these territorial gains, Prussia now stretched uninterrupted across the northern two-thirds of Germany and contained two-thirds of Germany's population. The German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia impelled the 21 states north of the Main river into forming the North German Confederation. Prussia was the dominant state in the new confederation, as the kingdom comprised almost four-fifths of the new state's territory and population. Prussia's near-total control over the confederation was secured in the constitution drafted for it by Bismarck in 1867. Executive power was held by a president, assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The presidency was a hereditary office of the Hohenzollern rulers of Prussia. There was also a two-house parliament. The lower house, or Reichstag (Diet), was elected by universal male suffrage. The upper house, or Bundesrat (Federal Council) was appointed by the state governments. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes, and could easily control proceedings through alliances with the other states. As a result of the peace negotiations, the states south of the Main remained theoretically independent, but received the (compulsory) protection of Prussia. Additionally, mutual defence treaties were concluded. However, the existence of these treaties was kept secret until Bismarck made them public in 1867 when France tried to acquire Luxembourg. Franco-Prussian War Main article: Franco-Prussian War Emperor Wilhelm I The controversy with the Second French Empire over the candidacy of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish throne was escalated both by France and Bismarck. With his Ems Dispatch, Bismarck took advantage of an incident in which the French ambassador had approached William. The government of Napoleon III, expecting another civil war among the German states, declared war against Prussia, continuing Franco-German enmity. However, honouring their treaties, the German states joined forces and quickly defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Following victory under Bismarck's and Prussia's leadership, Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, which had remained outside the North German Confederation, accepted incorporation into a united German Empire. The empire was a "Lesser German" solution (in German, "kleindeutsche Lösung") to the question of uniting all German-speaking peoples into one state, because it excluded Austria, which remained connected to Hungary and whose territories included non-German populations. On 18 January 1871 (the 170th anniversary of the coronation of King Frederick I), William was proclaimed "German Emperor" (not "Emperor of Germany") in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles outside Paris, while the French capital was still under siege. German Empire Main article: German Empire Prussia in the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 The two decades after the unification of Germany were the peak of Prussia's fortunes, but the seeds for potential strife were built into the Prusso-German political system. The Constitution of the German Empire was a version of the North German Confederation's constitution. Officially, the German Empire was a federal state. In practice, Prussia overshadowed the rest of the empire. Prussia included three-fifths of the German territory and two-thirds of its population. The Imperial German Army was, in practice, an enlarged Prussian army, although the other kingdoms (Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg) retained their own small armies, coming under Imperial control in wartime. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern, the royal house of Prussia. The Minister President of Prussia was, except for two brief periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94), also imperial chancellor. But the empire itself had no right to collect taxes directly from its subjects; the only incomes fully under federal control were the customs duties, common excise duties, and the revenue from postal and telegraph services. While all men above age 25 were eligible to vote in imperial elections, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system. This effectively required the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two different franchises. In both the kingdom and the empire, the original constituencies were never redrawn to reflect changes in population, meaning that rural areas were grossly overrepresented by the turn of the 20th century. As a result, Prussia and the German Empire were something of a paradox. Bismarck knew that his new German Empire was now a colossus and economically and militarily dominant in Europe; Britain was still dominant in finance, trade and at sea. He declared Germany a "satisfied" power, using his talents to preserve peace, for example at the Congress of Berlin. Bismarck did not set up his own party. He had mixed success in some of his domestic policies. His anti-Catholic Kulturkampf inside Prussia (and not the wider German state) was a failure. He ended his support for the anticlerical Liberals and worked instead with the Catholic Centre Party. He tried to destroy the socialist movement, with limited success. The large Polish population resisted Germanisation.[37] Frederick III became emperor in March 1888, after the death of his father, but he died of cancer only 99 days later. Kaiser Wilhelm II At age 29, Wilhelm became Kaiser Wilhelm II after a difficult youth and conflicts with his British mother Victoria, Princess Royal. He turned out to be a man of limited experience, narrow and reactionary views, poor judgment, and occasional bad temper, which alienated former friends and allies. Railways Main article: Prussian state railways Prussia nationalised its railways in the 1880s in an effort both to lower rates on freight service and to equalise those rates among shippers. Instead of lowering rates as far as possible, the government ran the railways as a profit-making endeavour, and the railway profits became a major source of revenue for the state. The nationalisation of the railways slowed the economic development of Prussia because the state favoured the relatively backward agricultural areas in its railway building. Moreover, the railway surpluses substituted for the development of an adequate tax system.[38] The Free State of Prussia in the Weimar Republic Main article: Free State of Prussia Because of the German Revolution of 1918, Wilhelm II abdicated as German Emperor and King of Prussia. Prussia was proclaimed a "Free State" (i.e. a republic, German: Freistaat) within the new Weimar Republic and in 1920 received a democratic constitution. Almost all of Germany's territorial losses, specified in the Treaty of Versailles, were areas that had been part of Prussia: Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium; North Schleswig to Denmark; the Memel Territory to Lithuania; the Hultschin area to Czechoslovakia. Many of the areas Prussia annexed in the partitions of Poland, such as the Provinces of Posen and West Prussia, as well as eastern Upper Silesia, went to the Second Polish Republic. Danzig became the Free City of Danzig under the administration of the League of Nations. Also, the Saargebiet was created mainly from formerly Prussian territories, except present Saarpfalz district, which was part of the Kingdom of Bavaria. East Prussia became an exclave, only reachable by ship. (the Sea Service East Prussia) or by a railway through the Polish corridor. Federal states of the Weimar Republic, with Prussia in light gray. After World War I the Provinces of Posen and West Prussia came largely to the 2nd Polish Republic; Posen-West Prussia and the West Prussia district were formed from the remaining parts. The German government seriously considered breaking up Prussia into smaller states, but eventually traditionalist sentiment prevailed and Prussia became by far the largest state of the Weimar Republic, comprising 60% of its territory. With the abolition of the older Prussian franchise, it became a stronghold of the left. Its incorporation of "Red Berlin" and the industrialised Ruhr Area, both with working-class majorities, ensured left-wing dominance.[39] From 1919 to 1932, Prussia was governed by a coalition of the Social Democrats, Catholic Centre and German Democrats; from 1921 to 1925, coalition governments included the German People's Party. Unlike in other states of the German Reich, majority rule by democratic parties in Prussia was never endangered. Nevertheless, in East Prussia and some rural areas, the Nazi Party of Adolf Hitler gained more and more influence and popular support, especially from the lower middle class starting in 1930. Except for Catholic Upper Silesia, the Nazi Party in 1932 became the largest party in most parts of the Free State of Prussia. However, the democratic parties in coalition remained a majority, while Communists and Nazis were in the opposition.[40] The East Prussian Otto Braun, who was Prussian minister-president almost continuously from 1920 to 1932, is considered one of the most capable Social Democrats in history. He implemented several trend-setting reforms together with his minister of the interior, Carl Severing, which were also models for the later Federal Republic of Germany. For instance, a Prussian minister-president could be forced out of office only if there was a "positive majority" for a potential successor. This concept, known as the constructive vote of no confidence, was carried over into the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Most historians regard the Prussian government during this time as far more successful than that of Germany as a whole.[41] In contrast to its pre-war authoritarianism, Prussia was a pillar of democracy in the Weimar Republic. This system was destroyed by the Preußenschlag ("Prussian coup") of Reich Chancellor Franz von Papen. In this coup d'état, the government of the Reich deposed the Prussian government on 20 July 1932, under the pretext that the latter had lost control of public order in Prussia (during the Bloody Sunday of Altona, Hamburg, which was still part of Prussia at that time) and by using fabricated evidence that the Social Democrats and the Communists were planning a joint putsch. The Defence Minister General Kurt von Schleicher, who was the prime mover behind the coup manufactured evidence that the Prussian police under Braun's orders were favouring the Communist Rotfrontkämpferbund in street clashes with the SA as part of an alleged plan to foment a Marxist revolution, which he used to get an emergency decree from President Paul von Hindenburg imposing Reich control on Prussia.[42] Papen appointed himself Reich commissioner for Prussia and took control of the government. The Preußenschlag made it easier, only half a year later, for Hitler to take power decisively in Germany, since he had the whole apparatus of the Prussian government, including the police, at his disposal.[43] Prussia and the Third Reich Adolf Hitler   Territory lost after World War I   Territory lost after World War II   Present-day Germany After the appointment of Hitler as the new chancellor, the Nazis used the absence of Franz von Papen as an opportunity to appoint Hermann Göring federal commissioner for the Prussian ministry of the interior. The Reichstag election of 5 March 1933 strengthened the position of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or "Nazi" Party), although they did not achieve an absolute majority.[44] The Reichstag building having been set on fire a few weeks earlier on 27 February, a new Reichstag was opened in the Garrison Church of Potsdam on 21 March 1933 in the presence of President Paul von Hindenburg. In a propaganda-filled meeting between Hitler and the Nazi Party, the "marriage of old Prussia with young Germany" was celebrated, to win over the Prussian monarchists, conservatives and nationalists and induce them into supporting and subsequently voting in favor of the Enabling Act of 1933. Paul von Hindenburg In the centralised state created by the Nazis in the "Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich" ("Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reichs", 30 January 1934) and the "Law on Reich Governors" ("Reichsstatthaltergesetz", 30 January 1935) the states were dissolved, in fact if not in law. The state landtage were abolished and the state governments were now controlled by Reichsstatthaltern (Reich Governors) who were appointed by the chancellor. Parallel to that, the organisation of the party into districts (Gaue) gained increasing importance, as the official in charge of a Gau (the head of which was called a Gauleiter) was again appointed by the chancellor who was at the same time chief of the Nazi Party. This centralising policy went even further in Prussia. From 1934 to 1945, almost all ministries were merged and only a few departments were able to maintain their independence. Hitler himself became formally the governor of Prussia. However, his functions were exercised by Hermann Göring as Prussian prime minister. As provided for in the "Greater Hamburg Act" ("Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz"), certain exchanges of territory took place. Prussia was extended on 1 April 1937, for instance, by the incorporation of the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck. The Prussian lands transferred to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles were re-annexed during World War II. However, most of this territory was not reintegrated back into Prussia but assigned to separate Gaue of Danzig-West Prussia and Wartheland during much of the duration of the war. The end of Prussia Map of the current states of Germany (in dark green) that are completely or mostly situated inside the old borders of Imperial Germany's Kingdom of Prussia The areas east of the Oder-Neisse line, mainly Eastern Prussia, Western Prussia, and Silesia, were annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union in 1945 owing to the Treaty of Potsdam between three of the Allies: the United States, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. This included important Prussian cities like Danzig, Königsberg, Breslau, and Stettin. The population fled, mostly to the Western zones, or was driven out. As part of their wartime goals, the Western allies sought the abolition of Prussia. Stalin was initially content to retain the name, Russians having a different historical view of their neighbour and sometime former ally. Nonetheless, by Law No. 46, which was accepted and implemented by the Allied Control Council on 25 February 1947, Prussia was officially proclaimed to be dissolved.[45] In the Soviet occupation zone, which became East Germany (officially, the German Democratic Republic) in 1949, the former Prussian territories were reorganised into the states of Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt, with the remaining parts of the Province of Pomerania going to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. These states were de facto abolished in 1952 in favour of Bezirke (districts), but were recreated after German reunification in 1990. In the Western Zones of occupation, which became West Germany (officially, the Federal Republic of Germany) in 1949, the former Prussian territories were divided up among North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein. Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern were later merged with Baden to create the state of Baden-Württemberg. The Saar region, which had been administered by the French as a protectorate separate from the rest of Western Germany, was admitted to the Federal Republic of Germany as a separate state following the 1955 Saar Statute referendum. One year later, in 1957, the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation was established and implemented by federal statutes in West Germany in response to a ruling from the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. The fundamental goal of this institution is protecting the cultural legacy of Prussia. As of 2021, it continues to operate from its headquarters in Berlin. Administrative and constitutional frameworks Main articles: Brandenburg-Prussia and Kingdom of Prussia In the mid-16th century the margraves of Brandenburg had become highly dependent on the Estates (representing counts, lords, knights, and towns, but not prelates, owing to the Protestant Reformation in 1538).[46] The margraviate's liabilities and tax income as well as the margrave's finances were in the hands of the Kreditwerk, an institution not controlled by the elector, and of the Großer Ausschuß ("Great Committee") of the Estates.[47] This was because of concessions made by Elector Joachim II in 1541 in return for financial aid by the estates; however, the Kreditwerk went bankrupt between 1618 and 1625.[47] The margraves further had to yield to the veto of the Estates in all issues concerning the "better or worse of the country", in all legal commitments, and in all issues concerning pawn or sale of the elector's real property.[47] Hohenzollern residence in Berlin ... during the Renaissance period ... according to the design of 1702 To reduce the influence of the Estates, in 1604, Joachim Frederick created a council called Geheimer Rat für die Kurmark ("Privy Council for the Electorate", which instead of the Estates would function as the supreme advisory council for the elector.[47] While the council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651, owing to the Thirty Years' War[47] (1618–1648) Until after the Thirty Years' War, the various territories of Brandenburg-Prussia remained politically independent from each other,[46] connected only by the common feudal superior.[48] Frederick William (ruled 1640–1688), who envisioned the transformation of the personal union into a real union,[48] started to centralise the Brandenburg-Prussian government with an attempt to establish the Geheimer Rat as a central authority for all territories in 1651, but this project proved unfeasible.[49] Instead, the elector continued to appoint a governor (Kurfürstlicher Rat) for each territory, who in most cases was a member of the Geheimer Rat.[49] The most powerful institution in the territories remained the governments of the estates (Landständische Regierung, named Oberratsstube in Prussia and Geheime Landesregierung in Mark and Cleves), which were the highest government agencies regarding jurisdiction, finances and administration.[49] The elector attempted to balance the Estates' governments by creating Amtskammer chambers to administer and coordinate the elector's domains, tax income and privileges.[49] Such chambers were introduced in Brandenburg in 1652, in Cleves and Mark in 1653, in Pomerania in 1654, in Prussia in 1661 and in Magdeburg in 1680.[49] Also in 1680, the Kreditwerk came under the aegis of the elector.[50] Frederick William I's excise tax (Akzise), which from 1667 replaced the property tax raised in Brandenburg for Brandenburg-Prussia's standing army with the Estates' consent, was raised by the elector without consultation with the Estates.[50] The conclusion of the Second Northern War of 1655–1660 had strengthened the elector politically, enabling him to reform the constitution of Cleves and Mark in 1660 and 1661 to introduce officials loyal to him and independent of the local estates.[50] In the Duchy of Prussia he confirmed the traditional privileges of the Prussian estates in 1663,[50] but the latter accepted the caveat that these privileges were not to be used to interfere with the exertion of the elector's sovereignty.[49] As in Brandenburg, Frederick William ignored the privilege of the Prussian Estates to confirm or veto taxes raised by the elector: while in 1656, an Akzise was raised with the Estates' consent, the elector by force collected taxes not approved by the Prussian Estates for the first time in 1674.[49] From 1704 the Prussian estates de facto relinquished their right to approve the elector's taxes while formally still entitled to do so.[49] In 1682 the elector introduced an Akzise to Pomerania and in 1688 to Magdeburg,[49] while in Cleves and Mark an Akzise was introduced only between 1716 and 1720. Owing to Frederick William I's reforms, the state income increased threefold during his reign, and the tax burden per subject reached a level twice as high as in France.[50] Prussian King's Crown (Hohenzollern Castle Collection) Under the rule of Frederick III (I) (reign: 1688–1713), the Brandenburg Prussian territories were de facto reduced to provinces of the monarchy.[48] Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, but his firstborn son Frederick III (I), with the emperor's backing, succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on the House Treaty of Gera of 1599, which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories.[51] In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was established, called Geheime Hofkammer (from 1713: Generalfinanzdirektorium). This chamber functioned as a superior agency of the territories' Amtskammer chambers.[52] The General War Commissariat (Generalkriegskommissariat) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the local Kriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but before 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks.[52] The Kingdom of Prussia functioned as an absolute monarchy until the German revolutions of 1848–1849, after which Prussia became a constitutional monarchy and King Frederick William IV appointed Adolf Heinrich von Arnim-Boitzenburg Prussia's first prime minister (Ministerpräsident).[53] Prussia's first constitution dated from 1848, but was only briefly in effect as it had been forced on the king. The 1850 Prussian Constitution established a two-chamber parliament. The lower house, the Prussian House of Representatives represented all taxpayers, who were divided into three classes according to the amount of taxes paid. This allowed just over 25% of the voters to choose 85% of the legislature, all but assuring dominance by the more well-to-do elements of the population. The upper house (First Chamber or Erste Kammer), later renamed the Prussian House of Lords (Herrenhaus), was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces. The Prussian Secret Police, formed in response to the German revolutions of 1848–1849, aided the conservative government. Prussia inside Weimar Republic Main article: Free State of Prussia Unlike its authoritarian pre-1918 predecessor, Prussia from 1918 to 1932 was a promising democracy within Germany. The abolition of the political power of the aristocracy transformed Prussia into a region strongly dominated by the left wing of the political spectrum, with "Red Berlin" and the industrial centre of the Ruhr Area exerting major influence. During this period a coalition of centre-left parties ruled, predominantly under the leadership (1920–1932) of East Prussian Social Democrat Otto Braun. While in office Braun implemented several reforms (together with his Minister of the Interior, Carl Severing) that became models for the later Federal Republic of Germany. For instance, a Prussian prime minister could only be forced out of office if there was a "positive majority" for a potential successor. This concept, known as the constructive vote of no confidence, became part of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. Historians regard the Prussian government during the 1920s as far more successful than that of Germany as a whole.[54] Similar to other German states both now and at the time, executive power remained vested in a Minister-President of Prussia and in laws established by a Landtag elected by the people. In 1649, Kursenieki settlements along the Baltic coastline of East Prussia spanned from Memel (Klaipėda) to Danzig (Gdańsk). Social history Population In 1871, Prussia's population numbered 24.69 million, accounting for 60% of the German Empire's population.[55] The population grew rapidly from 45 million in 1880 to 56 million in 1900, thanks to declining mortality, even as birth rates declined. About 6 million Germans, primarily young families migrated to the United States, especially the mid-western farming regions. Their place in agriculture was often taken by young Polish farm workers. In addition, large numbers of Polish miners moved to Upper Silesia and many Germans and Poles moved to industrial jobs in the fast-growing cities especially in the Rhineland and Westphalia.[56][57] In 1910, the population had increased to 40.17 million (62% of the Empire's population).[55] In 1914, Prussia had an area of 354,490 km2. In May 1939 Prussia had an area of 297,007 km2 and a population of 41,915,040 inhabitants. Religion Further information: Prussian Union of Churches, Old Lutherans, and Kulturkampf The Duchy of Prussia was the first state to officially adopt Lutheranism in 1525. In the wake of the Reformation, Prussia was dominated by two major Protestant confessions: Lutheranism and Calvinism. The majority of the Prussian population was Lutheran, although there were dispersed Calvinist minorities in central and western parts of the state especially Brandenburg, Rhineland, Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau. In 1613, John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg and Grand Duke of Prussia declared himself for the Calvinist creed and transferred the Berlin Cathedral from the Lutheran to the Calvinist church. Lutherans and Calvinist congregations all over the kingdom were merged in 1817 by the Prussian Union of churches, which came under tight royal control.[58] In Protestant regions, writes Nipperdey: Much of religious life was often conventional and superficial by any normal, human standard. The state and the bureaucracy kept their distance, preferring to spoon-feed the churches and treat them like children. They saw the churches as channels for education, as a means of instilling morality and obedience, or for propagating useful things, just like bee-keeping or potato-farming.[59] Prussia received significant Huguenot population after the issuing of the Edict of Fontainebleau by Louis XIV of France and the following dragonnades. Prussian monarchs, beginning with Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg opened the country to the fleeing French Calvinist refugees. In Berlin, they built and worshipped at their own church called the French Cathedral on Gendarmenmarkt. Time passed by, and the French Reformed assimilated into the wider Protestant community in Prussia. East Prussia's southern region of Masuria was mostly made up of Germanised Lutheran Masurians. After 1814, Prussia contained millions of Catholics in the west and in the east. There were substantial populations in the Rhineland, parts of Westphalia, eastern parts of Silesia, West Prussia, Ermland and the Province of Posen.[60] Communities in Poland were often ethnically Polish, although this is not the case of eastern Silesia as the majority of Catholics there were German. During the 19th-century Kulturkampf, Prussian Catholics were forbidden from fulfilling any official functions for the state and were largely distrusted. Prussia contained a relatively large Jewish community, which was mostly concentrated in large urban areas. According to the 1880 census, it was the biggest one in Germany with 363,790 individuals. In 1925, 64.9% of the Prussian population was Protestant, 31.3% was Catholic, 1.1% was Jewish, 2.7% was placed in other religious categories.[61] Non-German population In 1871, approximately 2.4 million Poles lived in Prussia, constituting the largest minority.[55] Other minorities were Jews, Danes, Frisians, Dutchmen, Kashubians (72,500 in 1905), Masurians (248,000 in 1905), Lithuanians (101,500 in 1905), Walloons, Czechs, Kursenieki, and Sorbs.[55] The area of Greater Poland, where the Polish nation had originated, became the Province of Posen after the Partitions of Poland. Poles in this Polish-majority province (62% Polish, 38% German) resisted German rule. Also, the southeast portion of Silesia (Upper Silesia) had a Polish majority. But Catholics and Jews did not have equal status with Protestants.[62] As a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the Second Polish Republic was granted not only these two areas, but also areas with a German majority in the Province of West Prussia. After World War II, East Prussia, most of Pomerania and Silesia, and the eastern part of Brandenburg were either annexed by the Soviet Union or given to Poland, and the German-speaking populations forcibly expelled. King Frederick William I of Prussia welcoming the expelled Salzburg Protestants King Frederick William I of Prussia welcoming the expelled Salzburg Protestants   The Berlin Cathedral c. 1900 The Berlin Cathedral c. 1900   Prussian deportations (Polenausweisungen) were the mass expulsions of ethnic Poles between 1885 and 1890. Prussian deportations (Polenausweisungen) were the mass expulsions of ethnic Poles between 1885 and 1890. Education Main article: Prussian education system The German states in the 19th century were world leaders in prestigious education and Prussia set the pace.[63][64] For boys free public education was widely available, and the gymnasium system for elite students was highly professionalized. The modern university system emerged from the 19th century German universities, especially Friedrich Wilhelm University (now named Humboldt University of Berlin). It pioneered the model of the research university with well-defined career tracks for professors.[65] The United States, for example, paid close attention to German models. Families focused on educating their sons. The traditional schooling for girls was generally provided by mothers and governesses. Elite families increasingly favoured Catholic convent boarding schools for their daughters. Prussia's Kulturkampf laws in the 1870s limited Catholic schools thus providing an opening for a large number of new private schools for girls.[66] See also The House of Hohenzollern (/ˌhoʊənˈzɒlərn/, US also /-nˈzɔːl-, -ntˈsɔːl-/;[1][2][3][4] German: Haus Hohenzollern, pronounced [ˌhaʊs hoːənˈtsɔlɐn] ⓘ; Romanian: Casa de Hohenzollern) is a formerly royal (and from 1871 to 1918, imperial) German dynasty whose members were variously princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family came from the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the late 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle.[5] The first ancestors of the Hohenzollerns were mentioned in 1061. The Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and the Protestant Franconian branch,[6] which ruled the Burgraviate of Nuremberg and later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1849, and also ruled Romania from 1866 to 1947. Members of the Franconian branch became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525. The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after 1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia. From there, the Kingdom of Prussia was created in 1701, eventually leading to the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871, with the Hohenzollerns as hereditary German Emperors and Kings of Prussia. Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution. The Hohenzollerns were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to the German and Prussian monarchy. Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, is the current head of the formerly royal Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern, is the head of the formerly princely Swabian line.[6] County of Zollern Hohenzollern Castle, near Hechingen, was built in the mid-19th century by Frederick William IV of Prussia on the remains of the castle founded in the early 11th century. Alpirsbach Abbey, founded by the Hohenzollerns in 1095 Zollern, from 1218 Hohenzollern, was a county of the Holy Roman Empire. Later its capital was Hechingen. The Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps. The Hohenzollern Castle lies on an 855 meters high mountain called Hohenzollern. It still belongs to the family today. The dynasty was first mentioned in 1061. According to the medieval chronicler Berthold of Reichenau, Burkhard I, Count of Zollern (de Zolorin) was born before 1025 and died in 1061.[7] In 1095, Count Adalbert of Zollern founded the Benedictine monastery of Alpirsbach, situated in the Black Forest. The Zollerns received the Graf title from Emperor Henry V in 1111. As loyal vassals of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, they were able to significantly enlarge their territory. Count Frederick III (c. 1139 – c. 1200) accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa against Henry the Lion in 1180, and through his marriage was granted the Burgraviate of Nuremberg by Emperor Henry VI in 1192. In about 1185, he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, Burgrave of Nuremberg.[6] After the death of Conrad II who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted Nuremberg as Burgrave Frederick I. In 1218, the burgraviate passed to Frederick's elder son Conrad I, he thereby became the ancestor of the Franconian Hohenzollern branch, which acquired the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1415.[6] Counts of Zollern (1061–1204) until 1061: Burkhard I[6] before 1125: Frederick I[6] between c. 1125 and 1142: Frederick II, eldest son of Frederick I[8]: XLI  between c. 1143 and 1150–1155: Burkhard II, 2nd oldest son of Frederick I[8]: XLI  between c. 1150–1155 and 1160: Gotfried of Zimmern, 4th oldest son of Frederick I[8]: XLI  before 1171 – c. 1200: Frederick III/I (son of Frederick II, also Burgrave of Nuremberg) After Frederick's death, his sons partitioned the family lands between themselves: Conrad I received the county of Zollern and exchanged it for the Burgraviate of Nuremberg with his younger brother Frederick IV in 1218, thereby founding the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. Members of the Franconian line eventually became the Brandenburg-Prussia branch and later converted to Protestantism. Frederick IV received the burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1200 from his father and exchanged it for the county of Zollern in 1218 with his brother, thereby founding the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, which remains Catholic.[6] Franconian branch The senior Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad I, Burgrave of Nuremberg (1186–1261). The family supported the Hohenstaufen and Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, being rewarded with several territorial grants. Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage and the purchase of surrounding lands. In the first phase, the family gradually added to their lands, at first with many small acquisitions in the Franconian region of Germany: Ansbach in 1331 Kulmbach in 1340 In the second phase, the family expanded their lands further with large acquisitions in the Brandenburg and Prussian regions of Germany and present-day Poland: Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417 Duchy of Prussia in 1525 These acquisitions eventually transformed the Franconian Hohenzollerns from a minor German princely family into one of the most important dynasties in Europe. From 8 January 1701 the title of Elector of Brandenburg was attached to the title of King in Prussia and, from 13 September 1772, to that of King of Prussia. Burgraves of Nuremberg (1192–1427) Region of Nuremberg, Ansbach, Kulmbach and Bayreuth (Franconia) Main article: Burgraviate of Nuremberg 1192–1200/1204: Frederick I (also count of Zollern as Frederick III) 1204–1218: Frederick II (son of, also count of Zollern as Frederick IV) 1218–1261/1262: Conrad I/III (brother of, also count of Zollern) 1262–1297: Frederick III (c. 1220–1297), son of 1297–1300: John I (c. 1279–1300), son of 1300–1332: Frederick IV (1287–1332), brother of 1332–1357: John II (c. 1309–1357), son of 1357–1397: Frederick V (before 1333–1398), son of At Frederick V's death on 21 January 1398, his lands were partitioned between his two sons: 1397–1420: John III/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1397–1427: Frederick VI/I/I, (brother of, also Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach) After John III/I's death on 11 June 1420, the margraviates of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach were briefly reunited under Frederick VI/I/I. He ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach after 1398. From 1420, he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. From 1411 Frederick VI became governor of Brandenburg and later Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. Upon his death on 21 September 1440, his territories were divided among his sons: Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg Albert III, Elector of Brandenburg and Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach John II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach In 1427 Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg sold Nuremberg Castle and his rights as burgrave to the Imperial City of Nuremberg. The territories of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach remained possessions of the family, once parts of the Burgraviate of Nuremberg. Nuremberg Castle (the Emperor's castle, left, and the Burgrave's castle, right) Nuremberg Castle (the Emperor's castle, left, and the Burgrave's castle, right)   Cadolzburg Castle near Nuremberg (from 1260 seat of the Burgraves) Cadolzburg Castle near Nuremberg (from 1260 seat of the Burgraves)   Heilsbronn Abbey, which the Hohenzollerns used as the family burial place Heilsbronn Abbey, which the Hohenzollerns used as the family burial place Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1398–1791) Main article: Principality of Ansbach 1398–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1440–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Elector of Brandenburg) 1486–1515: Frederick II/II (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1515–1543: George I/I the Pious (son of, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf) 1543–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia) 1603–1625: Joachim Ernst (1583–1625), son of John George of Brandenburg 1625–1634: Frederick III (1616–1634), son of 1634–1667: Albert II, brother of 1667–1686: John Frederick (1654–1686), son of 1686–1692: Christian I Albrecht, son of 1692–1703: George Frederick II/II (brother of, later Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1703–1723: William Frederick (before 1686–1723), brother of 1723–1757: Charles William (1712–1757), son of 1757–1791: Christian II Frederick (1736–1806) (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) On 2 December 1791, Christian II Frederick sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia. Margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1398–1604), later Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1604–1791) Main article: Principality of Bayreuth 1398–1420: John I (c. 1369–1420), son of Frederick V of Nuremberg 1420–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1440–1457: John II (1406–1464), son of 1457–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Elector of Brandenburg) 1486–1495: Siegmund (1468–1495), son of 1495–1515: Frederick II/II (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1515–1527: Casimir (1481–1527), son of 1527–1553: Albert II Alcibiades (1522–1557), son of 1553–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia) 1603–1655: Christian I (1581–1655), son of John George, of Brandenburg 1655–1712: Christian II Ernst (1644–1712), son of Erdmann August 1712–1726: George I William (1678–1726), son of 1726–1735: George Frederick II/II (previously Margrave of Kulmbach) 1735–1763: Frederick IV (1711–1763), son of 1763–1769: Frederick V Christian (1708–1769), son of Christian Heinrich 1769–1791: Charles Alexander (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) On 2 December 1791, Charles Alexander sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia. Dukes of Jägerndorf (1523–1622) Main article: Duchy of Krnov The Duchy of Jägerndorf (Krnov) was purchased in 1523. 1541–1543: George I the Pious (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1543–1603: George Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Regent of Prussia) 1603–1606: Joachim I (also Regent of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg) 1606–1621: Johann Georg von Brandenburg The duchy of Jägerndorf was confiscated by Emperor Ferdinand III in 1622. Brandenburg-Prussian branch Margraves of Brandenburg (1415–1619) Main article: Margraviate of Brandenburg Frederick VI became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415. In 1411, Frederick VI, Burgrave of the small but wealthy Nuremberg, was appointed governor of Brandenburg in order to restore order and stability. At the Council of Constance in 1415, King Sigismund elevated Frederick to the rank of Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. In 1417, Elector Frederick purchased Brandenburg from its then-sovereign, Emperor Sigismund, for 400,000 Hungarian guilders. Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Frederick I also as Frederick VI Burgrave of Nuremberg 1415–1440 1371 1440 Elisabeth of Bavaria Frederick II Son of 1440–1471 1413 1471 Catherine of Saxony Albrecht III Achilles Brother of 1471–1486 1414 1486 Margaret of Baden Anna of Saxony John Cicero Son of 1486–1499 1455 1499 Margaret of Thuringia Joachim I Nestor Son of 1499–1535 1484 1535 Elizabeth of Denmark Joachim II Hector Son of 1535–1571 1505 1571 Magdalena of Saxony Hedwig of Poland John George Son of 1571–1598 1525 1598 Sophie of Legnica Sabina of Brandenburg-Ansbach Elisabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst Joachim Frederick Son of 1598–1608 1546 1608 Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin Eleanor of Prussia John Sigismund Son of personal union with Prussia after 1618 called Brandenburg-Prussia. 1608–1619 1572 1619 Anna, Duchess of Prussia Margraves of Brandenburg-Küstrin (1535–1571) Main article: Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin The short-lived Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was set up as a secundogeniture of the House of Hohenzollern. 1535–1571: John the Wise, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin (son of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg). He died without issue. The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was absorbed in 1571 into Brandenburg. Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt (1688–1788) Main article: Brandenburg-Schwedt Although recognized as a branch of the dynasty since 1688, the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Schwedt remained subordinate to the electors, and was never an independent principality. 1688–1711: Philip William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg) 1731–1771: Frederick William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of) 1771–1788: Frederick Henry, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg Schwedt (brother of) Dukes of Prussia (1525–1701) Main article: Dukes of Prussia Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1600–1795 In 1525, the Duchy of Prussia was established as a fief of the King of Poland. Albert of Prussia was the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and the first Duke of Prussia. He belonged to the Ansbach branch of the dynasty. The Duchy of Prussia adopted Protestantism as the official state religion. 1525–1568: Albert I 1568–1618: Albert II Frederick co-heir (son of) 1568–1571: Joachim I/II Hector co-heir (also Elector of Brandenburg) 1578–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (Regent, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf) 1603–1608: Joachim I/I/III Frederick (Regent, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Elector of Brandenburg) 1608–1618: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1618–1619: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg, after 1618 Brandenburg-Prussia) 1619–1640: George William I/I (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1640–1688: Frederick I/III William the Great Elector (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1688–1701: Frederick II/IV/I (also Elector of Brandenburg and King in Prussia) From 1701, the title of Duke of Prussia was attached to the title of King in and of Prussia. Kings in Prussia (1701–1772) Coronation of Frederick I in Königsberg In 1701, the title of King in Prussia was granted, without the Duchy of Prussia being elevated to a Kingdom within Poland but recognized as a kingdom by the Holy Roman Emperor, theoretically the highest sovereign in the West. From 1701 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of King in Prussia. The Duke of Prussia adopted the title of king as Frederick I, establishing his status as a monarch whose royal territory lay outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, with the assent of Emperor Leopold I: Frederick could not be "King of Prussia" because part of Prussia's lands were under the suzerainty of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. In Brandenburg and the other Hohenzollern domains within the borders of the empire, he was legally still an elector under the ultimate overlordship of the emperor. By this time, however, the emperor's authority had become purely nominal over the other German prices outside the immediate hereditary lands of the emperor. Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia, though the two states came to be treated as one de facto. The king was officially Margrave of Brandenburg within the Empire until the Empire's dissolution in 1806. In the age of absolutism, most monarchs were obsessed with the desire to emulate Louis XIV of France with his luxurious palace at Versailles. In 1772, the Duchy of Prussia was elevated to a kingdom. See also: List of monarchs of Prussia Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Frederick I Son of 1701–1713 Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg since 1688 1657 1713 Elisabeth Henriette of Hesse-Kassel Sophia Charlotte of Hanover Sophia Louise of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Frederick William I Son of 1713–1740 1688 1740 Sophia Dorothea of Hanover Frederick II the Great Son of 1740–1772 King of Prussia from 1772 1712 1786 Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern Kings of Prussia (1772–1918) Expansion of Prussia, 1807–1871 Frederick William's successor, Frederick the Great gained Silesia in the Silesian Wars so that Prussia emerged as a great power. The king was strongly influenced by French culture and civilization and preferred the French language. In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e., the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby connecting his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1772 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in 1773. The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1772, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself King "of" Prussia. From 1772 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title King of Prussia. In 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia became a constituent member of the German Empire, and the King of Prussia gained the additional title of German Emperor. See also: List of monarchs of Prussia Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Frederick II the Great Son of 1772–1786 King in Prussia since 1740 1712 1786 Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern Frederick William II Nephew of 1786–1797 1744 1797 Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt Frederick William III Son of 1797–1840 1770 1840 Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Auguste von Harrach Frederick William IV Son of 1840–1861 1795 1861 Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria William I Brother of 1861–1888 German Emperor from 1871 1797 1888 Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Frederick III Son of 1888 German Emperor 1831 1888 Victoria, Princess Royal Wilhelm II Son of 1888–1918 German Emperor 1859 1941 Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein Hermine Reuss of Greiz German Emperors (1871–1918) Main article: German Emperor Prussia in the German Empire, 1871–1918 In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed. With the accession of William I to the newly established imperial German throne, the titles of King of Prussia, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of German Emperor. Prussia's Minister President Otto von Bismarck convinced William that German Emperor instead of Emperor of Germany would be appropriate. He became primus inter pares among other German sovereigns. William II intended to develop a German navy capable of challenging Britain's Royal Navy. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 set off the chain of events that led to World War I. As a result of the war, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires ceased to exist. In 1918, the German empire was abolished and replaced by the Weimar Republic. After the outbreak of the German revolution in 1918, both Emperor William II and Crown Prince William signed the document of abdication. William I (1871–1888) William I (1871–1888)   Frederick III (1888) Frederick III (1888)   William II (1888–1918) William II (1888–1918) Prussian Hohenzollern religion and religious policy The official religion of the state was "bi-confessional". John Sigismund's most significant action was his conversion from Lutheranism to Calvinism, after he had earlier equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in the Duchy of Prussia under pressure from the King of Poland. He was probably won over to Calvinism during a visit to Heidelberg in 1606, but it was not until 25 December 1613 that he publicly took communion according to the Calvinist rite. The vast majority of his subjects in Brandenburg, including his wife Anna of Prussia, remained deeply Lutheran, however. After the Elector and his Calvinist court officials drew up plans for mass conversion of the population to the new faith in February 1614, as provided for by the rule of Cuius regio, eius religio within the Holy Roman Empire, there were serious protests, with his wife backing the Lutherans. This was doubly important as Anna brought with her the duchy of Prussia into the Brandenburg line of the house and the nascent Brandenburg-Prussian state. Resistance was so strong that in 1615, John Sigismund backed down and relinquished all attempts at forcible conversion. Instead, he allowed his subjects to be either Lutheran or Calvinist according to the dictates of their own consciences. Henceforward, Brandenburg-Prussia would be a bi-confessional state, with the ruling Hohenzollern house staying Calvinist.[9] This situation persisted until Frederick William III of Prussia. Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial. Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition. The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history. In a series of proclamations over several years, the Church of the Prussian Union was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants. The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop.[10] Brandenburg-Prussian branch since 1918 abdication Georg Friedrich, the head of the Prussian Hohenzollerns, and his wife George Friedrich Prinz von Preussen standing in Hohenzollern Castle. George Friedrich photographed by Oliver Mark in Hohenzollern Castle, Bisingen 2018 In June 1926, a referendum on expropriating the formerly ruling princes of Germany without compensation failed and as a consequence, the financial situation of the Hohenzollern family improved considerably. A settlement between the state and the family made Cecilienhof property of the state but granted a right of residence to Crown Prince Wilhelm and his wife Cecilie. The family also kept the ownership of Monbijou Palace in Berlin, Oleśnica Castle in Silesia, Rheinsberg Palace, Schwedt Palace and other property until 1945. Since the abolition of the German monarchy, no Hohenzollern claims to imperial or royal prerogatives are recognized by Germany's Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, which guarantees a republic. The communist government of the Soviet occupation zone expropriated all landowners and industrialists; the House of Hohenzollern lost almost all of its fortune, retaining a few company shares and Hohenzollern Castle in West Germany. The Polish government appropriated the Silesian property and the Dutch government seized Huis Doorn, the Emperor's seat in exile. After German reunification, however, the family was legally able to reclaim their portable property, namely art collections and parts of the interior of their former palaces. Negotiations on the return of or compensation for these assets are not yet completed. The Berlin Palace, home of the German monarchs, was rebuilt in 2020. The Berlin Palace and the Humboldt Forum are located in the middle of Berlin. Order of succession Name Titular reign Relation to predecessor Wilhelm II 1918–1941 Succeeded himself as pretender to the throne. Crown Prince Wilhelm 1941–1951 Son of Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia 1951–1994 Son of Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia since 1994 Grandson of Carl Friedrich, Prince of Prussia Son of (heir apparent) Wilhelm II, the last incumbent of the throne Wilhelm II, the last incumbent of the throne   Crown Prinz Wilhelm Crown Prinz Wilhelm   Louis Ferdinand Louis Ferdinand   Georg Friedrich Georg Friedrich The head of the house is the titular King of Prussia and German Emperor. He also bears a historical claim to the title of Prince of Orange. Members of this line style themselves princes of Prussia. Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, the current head of the royal Prussian House of Hohenzollern, was married to Princess Sophie of Isenburg on 27 August 2011. On 20 January 2013, she gave birth to twin sons, Carl Friedrich Franz Alexander and Louis Ferdinand Christian Albrecht, in Bremen. Carl Friedrich, the elder of the two, is the heir apparent.[11] Royal House of Hohenzollern table Table of the Royal Brandenburg-Prussian House of Hohenzollern Family tree of the House of Hohenzollern House of Hohenzollern House of Hohenzollern Burkhard I Count of Zollern r. ?–1061 before 1025–1061 Frederick I Count of Zollern r. ?–before 1125 ?–before 1125 Frederick II Count of Zollern r. c. 1125–1145 before 1125–c. 1145 Burkhard II Count of Zollern r. c. 1145–1150/5 Gotfried Count of Zollern r. c. 1150/5–1160 Frederick I Burgrave of Nuremberg r. c. 1192–1200 Frederick III Count of Zollern r. after 1145–c. 1200 before 1139–c. 1200 Franconian Branch Swabian Branch Conrad I Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1218–1261 c. 1186–1261 Frederick IV Count of Hohenzollern r. 1218–1255 Frederick II Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1204–1218 c. 1188–1255 Frederick III Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1261–1297 c. 1220–1297 Frederick V the Illustrious Count of Hohenzollern r. 1255–1289 ?–1289 John I Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1297–1300 c.  1279–1300 Frederick IV Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1300–1332 1287–1332 Frederick VI the Knight Count of Hohenzollern r. 1289–1298 ?–1298 John II the Acquirer Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1332–1357 c. 1309–1357 Frederick VII Count of Hohenzollern r. 1298–1309 ?–1309 Frederick VIII Easter Sunday Count of Hohenzollern r. 1309–1333 ?–1333 Frederick V Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1357–1397 1333–1398 Frederick IX the Old Count of Hohenzollern r. 1333–1377/9 ?–1377/9 Frederick Count of Strasbourg Brandenburg- Prussian Branch John III Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1397–1420 John I Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1398–1420 c. 1369–1420 Frederick I Elector of Brandenburg r. 1415–1440 Frederick VI Burgrave of Nuremberg r. 1397–1427 1371–1440 Frederick X the Younger Count of Hohenzollern r. 1377/9–1412 ?–1412 Frederick XI the Elder Count of Hohenzollern r. 1377/9–1401 ?–1401 John II the Alchemist Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1440–1457 Margrave of Brandenburg r. 1426–1440 1406–1464 Frederick II the Iron Elector of Brandenburg r. 1440–1470 1413–1471 Albrecht III Achilles Elector of Brandenburg r. 1471–1486 1414–1486 Eitel Frederick I Count of Hohenzollern r. 1426–1439 c. 1384–1439 Frederick XII Count of Hohenzollern r. 1401–1426 before 1401–1443 John II Cicero Elector of Brandenburg r. 1486–1499 1455–1499 Frederick II Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1486–1536 Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1495–1515 1460–1536 Siegmund Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1486–1495 1468–1495 Jobst Nicholas I Count of Hohenzollern r. 1433–1488 1433–1488 Joachim I Nestor Elector of Brandenburg r. 1499–1535 1484–1535 Casimir Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1515–1527 1481–1527 George Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1536–1543 1484–1543 Albert Duke of Prussia r. 1525–1568 1490–1568 Eitel Frederick II Count of Hohenzollern r. 1488–1512 c. 1452–1512 Joachim II Hector Elector of Brandenburg r. 1535–1571 1505–1571 John Margrave of Brandenburg- Küstrin r. 1535–1571 1513–1571 Albert II Alcibiades Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1527–1553 1522–1557 George Frederick Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1543–1603 Margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach r. 1553–1603 1539–1603 Albert Frederick Duke of Prussia r. 1568–1618 1553–1618 Eitel Frederick III Count of Hohenzollern r. 1512-1525 1494–1525 John George Elector of Brandenburg r. 1571–1598 1525–1598 Charles I Count of Hohenzollern r. 1525–1576 1516–1576 House of Hohenzollern- Hechingen House of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen House of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch Joachim Frederick Elector of Brandenburg r. 1598–1608 1546–1608 Christian Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1603–1655 1581–1655 Joachim Ernest Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1603–1625 1583–1625 Eitel Frederick IV Count of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1576–1605 1545–1605 Charles II Count of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1576–1606 1547–1606 Christopher Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1576–1592 1552-1592 John Sigismund Elector of Brandenburg r. 1608–1619 Duke of Prussia r. 1618–1619 1572–1619 Erdman Augustus 1615–1651 George Albert 1619–1666 Frederick III Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1625–1634 1616–1634 Albert II Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1634–1667 1620–1667 John George Count of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1605–1623 Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1623 1577–1623 John Count of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1606–1623 Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1623–1638 Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1634–1638 1578–1638 John Christopher Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1592–1623 1586–1623 George William Elector of Brandenburg Duke of Prussia r. 1619–1640 1595–1640 Christian Ernest Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1655–1712 1644–1712 Christian Henry 1661–1708 John Frederick Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1667–1686 1654–1686 Eitel Frederick V Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1623–1661 1601–1661 Philip Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1661–1671 1616–1671 Meinrad I Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1638–1681 1605–1681 Charles Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1623–1634 1588–1634 Frederick William the Great Elector Elector of Brandenburg Duke of Prussia r. 1640–1688 1620–1688 George William Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1712–1726 1678–1726 George Frederick Charles Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1726–1735 1688–1735 Frederick Christian Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1763–1769 1708–1769 Frederick William Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1671–1735 1663–1735 Herman Frederick Maximilian I Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1681–1689 1636–1689 Francis Anthony Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1681–1702 1657–1702 Brandenburg- Schwedt Branch Frederick I the Mercenary King Duke of Prussia r. 1688–1701 King in Prussia r. 1701–1713 Frederick III Elector of Brandenburg r. 1688–1713 1657–1713 Philip William Margrave of Brandenburg- Schwedt r. 1688–1711 1669–1711 Frederick Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1735–1763 1711–1763 Christian Albert Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1686–1692 1675–1692 George Frederick II the Younger Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1692–1703 1678–1703 William Frederick Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1703–1723 1686–1723 Frederick Louis Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1730–1750 1688–1750 Joseph Frederick William Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1750–1798 1717–1798 Francis Xavier Meinrad II Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1689–1715 Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1702–1715 1673–1715 Ferdinand Leopold Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1702–1750 1692–1750 Francis Christopher Anthony Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1750–1767 1699–1767 Frederick William I the Soldier King King in Prussia Elector of Brandenburg r. 1713–1740 1688–1740 Frederick William Margrave of Brandenburg- Schwedt r. 1731–1771 1700–1771 Frederick Henry Margrave of Brandenburg- Schwedt r. 1771–1788 1709–1788 Charles William Frederick Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1723–1757 1712–1757 Herman Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1798–1810 1751–1810 Joseph Frederick Ernest Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1715–1769 Count of Hohenzollern- Haigerloch r. 1767–1769 1702–1769 Frederick II the Great King in Prussia r. 1740–1772 King of Prussia r. 1772–1786 Elector of Brandenburg r. 1740–1786 1688–1740 Augustus William 1722–1758 Alexander Margrave of Brandenburg- Ansbach r. 1757–1791 Margrave of Brandenburg- Bayreuth r. 1769–1791 1736–1806 Frederick Herman Otto Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1810–1838 1776–1838 Charles Frederick Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1769–1785 1724–1785 Frederick William II King of Prussia Elector of Brandenburg r. 1786–1797 1744–1797 Constantine Prince of Hohenzollern- Hechingen r. 1838–1849 1801–1869 Anthony Alois Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1785–1831 1762–1831 Frederick William III King of Prussia r. 1797–1840 Elector of Brandenburg r. 1797–1806 1770–1840 Charles Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1831–1848 1785–1853 Frederick William IV King of Prussia r. 1840–1861 1795–1861 William I German Emperor r. 1871–1888 King of Prussia r. 1861–1888 1797–1888 Charles Anthony Prince of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen r. 1848–1849 Prince of Hohenzollern r. 1869–1885 1811–1885 Frederick III German Emperor King of Prussia r. 1888 1831–1888 Leopold Prince of Hohenzollern r. 1885–1905 1835–1905 Charles I Domnitor of Romania r. 1866–1881 King of Romania r. 1881–1914 1839–1914 Romanian Branch William II German Emperor King of Prussia r. 1888–1918 1859–1941 William Prince of Hohenzollern r. 1905–1927 1864–1927 Ferdinand I King of Romania r. 1914–1927 1865–1927 Frederick Prince of Hohenzollern r. 1927–1965 1891–1965 Charles II King of Romania r. 1930–1940 1893–1953 Frederick William Prince of Hohenzollern r. 1965–2010 1924–2010 Michael I King of Romania r. 1927–1930, 1940–1947 1921–2017 Charles Frederick Prince of Hohenzollern r. 2010–present 1952–present Swabian branch Combined coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1849) The cadet Swabian[12] branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Frederick IV, Count of Zollern. The family ruled three territories with seats at, respectively, Hechingen, Sigmaringen and Haigerloch. The counts were elevated to princes in 1623. The Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns is Roman Catholic. Affected by economic problems and internal feuds, the Hohenzollern counts from the 14th century onwards came under pressure by their neighbors, the Counts of Württemberg and the cities of the Swabian League, whose troops besieged and finally destroyed Hohenzollern Castle in 1423. Nevertheless, the Hohenzollerns retained their estates, backed by their Brandenburg cousins and the Imperial House of Habsburg. In 1535, Count Charles I of Hohenzollern (1512–1576) received the counties of Sigmaringen and Veringen as Imperial fiefs.[6] In 1576, when Charles I, Count of Hohenzollern died, his county was divided to form the three Swabian branches. Eitel Frederick IV took Hohenzollern with the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Karl II took Sigmaringen and Veringen, and Christopher got Haigerloch. Christopher's family died out in 1634. Eitel Frederick IV of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1545–1605) Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606) Christopher of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592) In 1695, the remaining two Swabian branches entered into an agreement with the Margrave of Brandenburg, which provided that if both branches became extinct, the principalities should fall to Brandenburg. Because of the Revolutions of 1848, Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones in December 1849. The principalities were ruled by the Kings of Prussia from December 1849 onwards, with the Hechingen and Sigmaringen branches obtaining official treatment as cadets of the Prussian royal family. The Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869. A descendant of this branch was Countess Sophie Chotek, morganatic wife of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Lotharingen. Sigmaringen Castle Sigmaringen Castle   The New Castle, Hechingen The New Castle, Hechingen   Haigerloch Castle Haigerloch Castle Counts of Hohenzollern (1204–1575) Hohenzollern region, in present-day Baden-Württemberg, Germany (red color) and their Prussian cousins' kingdom (light beige) In 1204, the County of Hohenzollern was established out of the fusion of the County of Zollern and the Burgraviate of Nuremberg. The Swabian branch inherited the county of Zollern and, being descended from Frederick I of Nuremberg, were all named "Friedrich" down through the 11th generation.[13] Each one's numeral is counted from the first Friedrich to rule his branch's appanage.[13] The most senior of these in the 14th century, Count Frederick VIII (d. 1333), had two sons, the elder of whom became Frederick IX (d. 1379), first Count of Hohenzollern, and fathered Friedrich X who left no sons when he died in 1412.[13] But the younger son of Friedrich VIII, called Friedrich of Strassburg, uniquely, took no numeral of his own, retaining the old title "Count of Zollern" and pre-deceased his brother in 1364/65.[13] Prince Wilhelm Karl zu Isenburg's 1957 genealogical series, Europäische Stammtafeln, says Friedrich of Strassburg shared, rather, in the rule of Zollern with his elder brother until his premature death.[13] It appears, but is not stated, that Strassburg's son became the recognized co-ruler of his cousin Friedrich X (as compensation for having received no appanage and/or because of incapacity on the part of Friedrich X) and, as such, assumed (or is, historically, attributed) the designation Frederick XI although he actually pre-deceased Friedrich X, dying in 1401. Friedrich XI, however, left two sons who jointly succeeded their cousin-once-removed, being Count Frederick XII (d. childless 1443) and Count Eitel Friedrich I (d. 1439), the latter becoming the ancestor of all subsequent branches of the Princes of Hohenzollern.[13] 1204–1251/1255: Frederick IV, also Burgrave of Nuremberg as Frederick II until 1218 1251/1255–1289: Frederick V 1289–1298: Frederick VI (d. 1298), son of 1298–1309: Frederick VII (d. after 1309), son of 1309–1333: Frederick VIII (d. 1333), brother of 1333–1377: Frederick IX 1377–1401: Frederick XI 1401–1426: Frederick XII 1426–1439: Eitel Frederick I, brother of 1433–1488: Jobst Nicholas I (1433–1488), son of 1488–1512: Eitel Frederick II (c. 1452–1512), son of 1512–1525: Eitel Frederick III (1494–1525), son of 1525–1575: Charles I (1516–1576), son of In the 12th century, a son of Frederick I secured the county of Hohenberg. The county remained in the possession of the family until 1486. The influence of the Swabian line was weakened by several partitions of its lands. In the 16th century, the situation changed completely when Eitel Frederick II, a friend and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I, received the district of Haigerloch. His grandson Charles I was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vehringen by Charles V. Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1576–1849) Stetten Abbey church in Hechingen, the burial place of the Swabian line Main article: Hohenzollern-Hechingen The County of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was established in 1576 with allodial rights. It included the original County of Zollern, with the Hohenzollern Castle and the monastery at Stetten. In December 1849, the ruling princes of both Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones, and their principalities were incorporated as the Prussian province of Hohenzollern.[6] The Hechingen branch became extinct in dynastic line with Konstantin's death in 1869. Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Eitel Friedrich IV Son of Charles I 1576–1605 1545 1605 Veronica of Ortenburg Sibylle of Zimmern Johanna of Eberstein Johann Georg Son of raised to Prince in 1623 1605–1623 1577 1623 Franziska of Salm-Neufville Eitel Frederick V Son of also count of Hohenzollern-Hechingen 1623–1661 1601 1661 Maria Elisabeth van Bergh ’s-Heerenberg Philipp Brother of 1661–1671 1616 1671 Marie Sidonie of Baden-Rodemachern Friedrich Wilhelm Son of 1671–1735 1663 1735 Maria Leopoldina of Sinzendorf Maximiliane Magdalena of Lützau Friedrich Ludwig Son of 1735–1750 1688 1750 unmarried Josef Friedrich Wilhelm Son of Herman Frederick of Hohenzollern-Hechingen 1750–1798 1717 1798 Maria Theresia Folch de Cardona y Silva Maria Theresia of Waldburg-Zeil Hermann Son of Franz Xaver of Hohenzollern-Hechingen 1798–1810 1751 1810 Louise of Merode-Westerloo Maximiliane of Gavre Maria Antonia of Waldburg-Zeil-Wurzach Friedrich Hermann Otto Son of 1810–1838 1776 1838 Pauline, Duchess of Sagan Constantine Son of 1838–1849 1801 1869 Eugénie de Beauharnais Amalie Schenk von Geyern Counts of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1576–1634 and 1681–1767) Main article: Hohenzollern-Haigerloch The County of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch was established in 1576 without allodial rights. 1576–1601 : Christopher (1552–1592), son of Charles I of Hohenzollern 1601–1623 : John Christopher (1586–1620), son of 1601–1634 : Charles (1588–1634) Between 1634 and 1681, the county was temporarily integrated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 1681–1702: Francis Anthony, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch 1702–1750: Ferdinand Leopold, Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 1750–1767: Francis Christopher Anton, Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Upon the death of Francis Christopher Anton in 1767, the Haigerloch territory was incorporated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1576–1849) Sigmaringen Castle Main article: Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen The County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was established in 1576 with allodial rights and a seat at Sigmaringen Castle. In December 1849, sovereignty over the principality was yielded to the Franconian branch of the family and incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia, which accorded status as cadets of the Prussian Royal Family to the Swabian Hohenzollerns. The last ruling Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Karl Anton, would later serve as Minister President of Prussia between 1858 and 1862. Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Charles II Son of Charles I 1576–1606 1547 1606 Euphrosyne of Oettingen-Wallerstein Elisabeth of Palant Johann Son of elevated to Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1623 1606–1638 1578 1638 Johanna of Hohenzollern-Hechingen Meinrad I Son of 1638–1681 1605 1681 Anna Marie of Törring at Seefeld Maximilian I Son of 1681–1689 1636 1689 Maria Clara of Berg-'s-Heerenberg Meinrad II Son of 1689–1715 1673 1715 Johanna Catharina of Montfort Joseph Friedrich Ernst Son of 1715–1769 1702 1769 Marie Franziska of Oettingen-Spielberg Judith of Closen-Arnstorf Maria Theresa of Waldburg-Trauchburg Karl Friedrich Son of 1769–1785 1724 1785 Johanna of Hohenzollern-Bergh Anton Aloys Son of 1785–1831 1762 1831 Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg Karl Son of 1831–1848 1785 1853 Marie Antoinette Murat Katharina of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst Karl Anton Son of 1848–1849 1811 1885 Josephine of Baden House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen after 1849 Main article: House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Map of the Prussian Province of Hohenzollern after 1850 Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern, head of the Swabian branch The family continued to use the title of Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. After the Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869, the Sigmaringen branch adopted title of Prince of Hohenzollern. 1849–1885: Karl Anton I (1811–1885) 1885–1905: Leopold I (1835–1905), son of 1905–1927: William I (1864–1927), son of 1927–1965: Frederick I (1891–1965), son of 1965–2010: Friedrich Wilhelm I (1924–2010), son of 2010–present: Karl Friedrich I (1952–), son of heir apparent: Alexander In 1866, Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Romania, becoming King Carol I of Romania in 1881. Charles's elder brother, Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, was offered the Spanish throne in 1870 after a revolt exiled Isabella II in 1868. Although encouraged by Bismarck to accept, Leopold declined in the face of French opposition. Nonetheless, Bismarck altered and then published the Ems telegram to create a casus belli: France declared war, but Bismarck's Germany won the Franco-Prussian War. The head of the Sigmaringen branch (the only extant line of the Swabian branch of the dynasty) is Karl Friedrich, styled His Highness The Prince of Hohenzollern. His official seat is Sigmaringen Castle.[6] Kings of the Romanians Main article: Kingdom of Romania Reigning (1866–1947) Coronation of Carol I in Bucharest Evolution of Romania The Principality of Romania was established in 1862, after the Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia had been united in 1859 under Alexandru Ioan Cuza as Prince of Romania in a personal union. He was deposed in 1866 by the Romanian parliament. Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was invited to become reigning Prince of Romania in 1866. In 1881 he became Carol I, King of Romania. Carol I had an only daughter who died young, so the younger son of his brother Leopold, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, would succeed his uncle as King of Romania in 1914, and his descendants, having converted to the Orthodox Church, continued to reign there until the end of the monarchy in 1947. See also: King of Romania and Romanian royal family Portrait Name Dynastic Status Reign Birth Death Marriages Carol I Son of Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern titled as Prince until 1881 1866–1914 1839 1914 Elisabeth of Wied Ferdinand I Nephew of Carol I 1914–1927 1865 1927 Marie of Edinburgh Michael I Grandson of Ferdinand I 1st reign 1927–1930 (regency) 1921 2017 Anne of Bourbon-Parma Carol II Son of Ferdinand I 1930–1940 1893 1953 Zizi Lambrino Helen of Greece and Denmark Magda Lupescu Michael I Son of Carol II 2nd reign 1940–1947 1921 2017 Anne of Bourbon-Parma Succession since 1947 In 1947, the King Michael I abdicated and the country was proclaimed a People's Republic. Michael did not press his claim to the defunct Romanian throne, but he was welcomed back to the country after half a century in exile as a private citizen, with substantial former royal properties being placed at his disposal. However, his dynastic claim was not recognized by post-Communist Romanians. On 10 May 2011, King Michael I severed the dynastic ties between the Romanian Royal Family and the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.[14] After that the branch of the Hohenzollerns was dynastically represented only by the last king Michael, and his daughters. Having no sons, he declared that his dynastic heir, instead of being a male member of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen princely family to which he formerly belonged patrilineally and in accordance with the last Romanian monarchical constitution, should be his eldest daughter Margareta.[15] The royal house remains popular in Romania[16] and in 2014 Prime Minister Victor Ponta promised a referendum on whether or not to reinstate the monarchy if he were re-elected. Residences Palaces of the Prussian Hohenzollerns Hohenzollern Castle Hohenzollern Castle   Berlin Palace Berlin Palace   Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin   Königsberg Castle, Prussia Königsberg Castle, Prussia   City Palace, Potsdam City Palace, Potsdam   New Palace, Potsdam New Palace, Potsdam   Sanssouci, Potsdam Sanssouci, Potsdam   Marmorpalais, Potsdam Marmorpalais, Potsdam   Babelsberg Palace, Potsdam Babelsberg Palace, Potsdam   Cecilienhof Palace, Potsdam Cecilienhof Palace, Potsdam   Oranienburg Palace Oranienburg Palace   Rheinsberg Palace Rheinsberg Palace   Wrocław Palace, Silesia Wrocław Palace, Silesia   Oels Castle, Silesia Oels Castle, Silesia   Stolzenfels Castle, Koblenz Stolzenfels Castle, Koblenz Palaces of the Franconian branches Plassenburg Castle at Kulmbach Plassenburg Castle at Kulmbach   The New Castle at Bayreuth The New Castle at Bayreuth   Residenz Ansbach Residenz Ansbach   Erlangen Castle Erlangen Castle Palaces of the Swabian Hohenzollerns The New Castle at Hechingen The New Castle at Hechingen Property claims In mid-2019, it was revealed that Prince Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, Head of the House of Hohenzollern had filed claims for permanent right of residency for his family in Cecilienhof, or one of two other Hohenzollern palaces in Potsdam, as well as return of the family library, 266 paintings, an imperial crown and sceptre, and the letters of Empress Augusta Victoria.[17] Central to the argument was that Monbijou Palace, which had been permanently given to the family following the fall of the Kaiser, was demolished by the East German government in 1959. Lawyers for the German state argued that the involvement of members of the family in National Socialism had voided any such rights.[17] In June 2019, a claim made by Prince Georg Friedrich that Rheinfels Castle be returned to the Hohenzollern family was dismissed by a court. In 1924, the ruined Castle had been given by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate to the town of St Goar, under the provision it was not sold. In 1998, the town leased the ruins to a nearby hotel. His case made the claim that this constituted a breach of the bequest.[18] Coats of arms Main articles: Coat of arms of Prussia and Coat of arms of Germany Quartered coat of arms of the Hohenzollerns Quartered coat of arms of the Hohenzollerns   Counts of Zollern (1340) Counts of Zollern (1340)   Achievement of Counts of Zollern Achievement of Counts of Zollern   Burgraves of Nuremberg (1340) Burgraves of Nuremberg (1340)   Burgraves of Nuremberg Burgraves of Nuremberg   The princely Swabian branch (1605) The princely Swabian branch (1605)   Arms of the Duke of Prussia Arms of the Duke of Prussia   Arms of the King of Prussia Arms of the King of Prussia   Achievement of the King of Prussia Achievement of the King of Prussia   Coat of Arms of the German Emperor (1871-1918) Coat of Arms of the German Emperor (1871-1918)   The greater coat of arms as German Emperor (1871-1918) The greater coat of arms as German Emperor (1871-1918) Members of the family after abdication Royal Brandenburg-Prussian branch Prince Franz Wilhelm of Prussia (1943–) Prince Frederick of Prussia (1911–1966) Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia (1976–) Prince Hubertus of Prussia (1909–1950) Princess Kira of Prussia (1943–2004) Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907–1994) Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1944–1977) Prince Michael of Prussia (1940–2014) Prince Oskar of Prussia (1959–) Wilhelm, Prince of Prussia (1882–1951) Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940) Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (1922–2007) Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (b. 1955) (2007-present) Princely Swabian branch Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (1890–1966) Prince Ferfried of Hohenzollern (1943–2022) Frederick, Prince of Hohenzollern (1891–1965) Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern (1924–2010) Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016) Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern (1952–) See also Coat of arms of Prussia Family tree of the German monarchs House Order of Hohenzollern Iron Cross Monarchism in Romania Order of the Black Eagle and Suum cuique Order of the Crown (Prussia) and Gott mit uns Order of the Red Eagle Prussian Army Peleș Castle Peter Gumpel - Jesuit priest who abandoned the Hohenzollern name Wilhelm-Orden References
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