† 1877 Coa St Peter Apostle Cross Reliquary 1 Relic De Ligneo Cruce Waxsealed †

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Seller: lagaleriedelalpe ✉️ (1,103) 100%, Location: Huez, FR, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 254544819742 † 1877 COA ST PETER APOSTLE CROSS RELIQUARY 1 RELIC DE LIGNEO CRUCE WAXSEALED †. †  PETER APOSTLE 1 RELIC  DE LIGNEO CRUCE S.PETRI AP... PETER CROSS RELIQUARY    WAX SEALED + y.1877 CERTIFICATE by Francesco Marinelli, O.S.A. † (15 dicembre  1856  - 27 gennaio  1887  deceduto)  BISHOP - PORFIREONE - ISRAEL † DIMENSIONS: 30 mm X 25 mm X 7 mm 8.4 grs.

Saint Peter
Pope   Saint Apostle Peter
Apostle ,  Pope ,[1]   Patriarch , and  Martyr
Saint Peter   (c. 1468) by  Marco Zoppo , depicting Peter holding the  Keys of Heaven   and a book representing the  gospel
ChurchEarly Christian   Great Church
See
  • First  Bishop of Rome   (pope), according to  Catholic   tradition
  • First  Bishop of Antioch   (patriarch ), according to  Eastern Christian   tradition
InstalledAD 30[2]
Term endedbetween AD 64 and 68[3]
Successor
  • Bishop of  Rome   (according to tradition):  Linus
  • Bishop of  Antioch   (according to tradition):  Evodius
Orders
OrdinationAD 33 by Jesus Christ
Personal details
Birth nameShimon (Simeon, Simon)
Bornc. AD 1 Bethsaida ,  Gaulanitis ,  Syria ,  Roman Empire
Diedbetween AD 64 and 68 (aged 62–67)
ParentsJohn (or Jonah; Jona)
OccupationFisherman ,  clergyman
Sainthood
Feast day
  • Main feast (with  Paul the Apostle ) 29 June (Catholic Church ,  Eastern Orthodox Church ,  Oriental Orthodoxy ,  Anglicanism ,  Lutheranism )
  • 18 January - Confession of Saint Peter (Anglicanism)
  • 22 February - Chair of Saint Peter (Catholic Church)
Venerated inAll  Christian denominations   that venerate  saints ,  Islam
CanonizedPre-Congregation
AttributesKeys of Heaven ,  Red Martyr ,  pallium ,  papal vestments ,  rooster , man crucified upside down, vested as an Apostle, holding a book or scroll,  Cross of Saint Peter .  Iconographically , he is depicted with a bushy white beard and white hair.
PatronagePatronage list
ShrinesSt. Peter's Basilica

Saint Peter   (Classical Syriac :  ܫܸܡܥܘܿܢ ܟܹ݁ܐܦ݂ܵܐ ‎,  romanized:  Šemʿōn Kēp̄ā ;  Hebrew :  שמעון בר יונה ‎,  romanized :  Šimʿōn bar Yōnāh ;  Arabic :  سِمعَان بُطرُس ‎,  romanized :  Simʿa̅n Buṭrus ;  Greek :  Πέτρος ,  translit.  Petros ;  Coptic :  Ⲡⲉⲧⲣⲟⲥ ,  romanized:  Petros ;  Latin :  Petrus ; r. AD 30;[2]   died between AD 64 and 68),[3]   also known as  Simon Peter ,  Simeon ,  Simon   (/ˈ s aɪ m ə n /   ( listen ) ),  Cephas , or  Peter the Apostle , was one of the  Twelve Apostles   of  Jesus Christ , and the first leader of the  early Church .

According to  Christian tradition , Peter was crucified in  Rome   under Emperor  Nero . He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome‍—‌or  pope ‍—‌and also by  Eastern Christian tradition   as the first  Patriarch of Antioch . The ancient Christian churches all  venerate   Peter as a major  saint   and as the founder of the  Church of Antioch   and the  Roman Church ,[3]   but differ in their attitudes regarding the authority of his present-day successors (the  primacy of the Bishop of Rome ). According to  Catholic teaching , in  Matthew 16:18   Jesus promised Peter a  special position   in the Church.

Two  general epistles   in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, but modern scholars generally reject the  Petrine authorship   of both.[4]   The  Gospel of Mark   was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peter's preaching and eyewitness memories. Several other books bearing his name‍—‌the  Acts of Peter ,  Gospel of Peter ,  Preaching of Peter ,  Apocalypse of Peter , and  Judgment of Peter ‍—‌are considered by Christian denominations as  apocryphal , and are thus not included in their  Bible   canons.[5] [6] [7]

Names and etymologies [ edit ] Calling of Peter and Andrew , 1603/1606,  Caravaggio

Peter's original name, as indicated in the New Testament, was "Simon" (Σίμων   Simōn   in  Greek ) or (only in  Acts 15:14   and  2 Peter 1:1 ) "Simeon" (Συμεών   in Greek). The Simon/Simeon variation has been explained as reflecting "the well-known custom among Jews at the time of giving the name of a famous patriarch or personage of the  Old Testament   to a male child along with a similar sounding Greek/Roman name".[8]

He was later given the name כֵּיפָא (Kepha ) in  Aramaic , which was rendered in Greek (by transliteration and the addition of a final  sigma   to make it a masculine word) as  Κηφᾶς , whence  Latin   and  English   Cephas   (9 occurrences in the New Testament);[9]   or (by translation with masculine termination) as Πέτρος, whence Latin  Petrus   and English  Peter   (156 occurrences in the New Testament).[10]

The precise meaning of the Aramaic word is disputed, some saying that its usual meaning is "rock" or "crag", others saying that it means rather "stone" and, particularly in its application by Jesus to Simon, "precious stone" or "jewel", but most scholars agree that as a proper name it denotes a rough or tough character.[11]   Both meanings, "stone" (jewel or hewn stone) and "rock", are indicated in dictionaries of Aramaic[12]   and  Syriac .[13]   Catholic theologian Rudolf Pesch argues that the Aramaic  cepha   means "stone, ball, clump, clew" and that "rock" is only a connotation; that in the Attic Greek  petra   denotes "grown rock, rocky range, cliff, grotto"; and that  petros   means "small stone, firestone, sling stone, moving boulder".[14]

The combined name  Σίμων Πέτρος   (Simon Peter) appears 19 times in the  New Testament . In some  Syriac   documents he is called, in English translation, Simon Cephas.[15]

Biographical information [ edit ] Ruins of ancient  Capernaum   on north side of the  Sea of Galilee

Sources [ edit ]

Peter's life story is told in the four  canonical gospels , the  Acts of the Apostles , New Testament letters, the non-canonical  Gospel of the Hebrews   and other  Early Church   accounts of his life and death. In the  New Testament , he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus' ministry. Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church.[16]

Accounts [ edit ]

Peter was a fisherman in  Bethsaida   (John 1 :44). He was named Simon, son of Jonah or John.[17]   The three  Synoptic Gospels   recount how Peter's mother-in-law  was healed by Jesus   at their home in  Capernaum   (Matthew 8 :14–17,  Mark 1 :29–31,  Luke 4 :38); this passage clearly depicts Peter as being married.  1 Corinthians 9 :5 has also been taken to imply that he was married.[18]

The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew   (from the  Maestà ), c. 1308–1311

In the  Synoptic Gospels , Peter (then Simon) was a fisherman along with his brother,  Andrew , and the sons of Zebedee, James and John. The  Gospel of John   also depicts Peter fishing, even after the resurrection of Jesus, in the story of the  Catch of 153 fish . In Matthew and Mark, Jesus called Simon and his brother Andrew to be "fishers of men " (Matthew 4:18 –19 ,  Mark 1 :16–17).

A Franciscan church is built upon the traditional site of Apostle Peter's house.[19]   In  Luke , Simon Peter owns the boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of  Lake Gennesaret   (Luke 5 :3). Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions James and John (Andrew is not mentioned) by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him (Luke 5 :4–11). The  Gospel of John   gives a comparable account of "The First Disciples" (John 1 :35–42). In John, the readers are told that it was two disciples of  John the Baptist   (Andrew and an unnamed disciple) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the "Lamb of God " and then followed Jesus. Andrew then went to his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the  Messiah ", and then brought Simon to Jesus.

Apostle Peter striking the  High Priests ' servant  Malchus   with a sword in the  Garden of Gethsemane , by  Giuseppe Cesari   c. 1597

Three of the four gospels – Matthew, Mark and John – recount the story of Jesus  walking on water . Matthew additionally describes Peter walking on water for a moment but beginning to sink when his faith wavers (Matthew 14 :28–31).

At the beginning of the  Last Supper , Jesus washed his disciples' feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when Jesus threatened him with: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me", Peter replied: "Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head" (John 13 :2–11). The  washing of feet   is often repeated in the  service of worship   on  Maundy Thursday   by some  Christian denominations .

The three  Synoptic Gospels   all mention that, when Jesus was arrested, one of his companions cut off the ear of a servant of the  High Priest of Israel   (Matthew 26 :51,  Mark 14 :47,  Luke 22 :50). The Gospel of John also includes this event and names Peter as the swordsman and  Malchus   as the victim (John 18 :10). Luke adds that Jesus touched the ear and miraculously healed it (Luke 22 :49–51). This healing of the servant's ear is the last of the  37 miracles attributed to Jesus   in the Bible.

Simon Peter was twice arraigned, with John, before the  Sanhedrin   and directly defied them (Acts 4 :7–22,  Acts 5 :18–42). After receiving a vision from  God   that allowed for the eating of previously unclean animals, Peter takes a missionary journey to  Lydda ,  Joppa   and  Caesarea   (Acts 9 :32–Acts 10 :2), becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelise the  Gentiles   (Acts 10 ). Simon Peter applied the message of the vision on clean animals to the gentiles and follows his meeting with  Cornelius the Centurion   by claiming that 'God shows no partiality (Acts 10 ).'[20]

According to the  Acts of the Apostles , Peter and John were sent from Jerusalem to  Samaria   (Acts 8 :14). Peter/Cephas is mentioned briefly in the opening chapter of one of the  Pauline epistles ,  Epistle to the Galatians , which mentions a trip by  Paul the Apostle   to  Jerusalem   where he meets Peter (Galatians 1 :18). Peter features again in Galatians, fourteen years later, when Paul (now with  Barnabas   and  Titus ) returned to Jerusalem (Galatians 2 :7-9). When Peter came to  Antioch , Paul opposed Peter to his face "because he [Peter] was in the wrong" (Galatians 2 :11.[21]

Apostle Peter Released from Prison ,  Jacopo di Cione , 1370-1371 (Philadelphia Museum of Art )

Acts 12   narrates how Peter, who was in Jerusalem, was put into prison by  Agrippa I   (A.D. 42–44), but was  rescued by an angel . After his liberation Peter left Jerusalem to go to "another place" (Acts 12:1–18). Concerning Peter's subsequent activity there is no further connected information from the extant sources, although there are short notices of certain individual episodes of his later life.[3]

First leader of the early Church [ edit ] Main articles:  Jewish Christian   and  Early Christianity

The Gospels and Acts portray Peter as the most prominent apostle, though he denied Jesus three times during the events of the crucifixion. According to the Christian tradition, Peter was the first to whom Jesus appeared, balancing Peter's denial and restoring his position. Peter is regarded as the first leader of the early Church,[22] [23]   though he was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord."[24] [25]   Because Peter was the first to whom Jesus appeared, the leadership of Peter forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy, as the heirs of Peter,[26]   and is described as "the rock" on which the church will be built.[22]

Position among the apostles [ edit ] St. Peter Preaching the Gospel in the Catacombs   by  Jan Styka

Peter is always listed first among the Twelve Apostles in the gospels[27]   and in the Book of Acts (Acts 1:13 ). He is also frequently mentioned in the gospels as forming with  James the Elder   and  John   a special group within the Twelve Apostles, present at incidents at which the others were not present, such as at the  Transfiguration of Jesus ,[28]   at the  raising of Jairus' daughter [29]   and at  the agony   in the Garden of Gethsemane.[30]   Peter often confesses his faith in Jesus as the Messiah.

Peter is often depicted in the gospels as spokesman of all the Apostles.[31]   John Vidmar , a Catholic scholar, writes: "Catholic scholars agree that Peter had an authority that superseded that of the other apostles. Peter is their spokesman at several events, he conducts the election of Matthias, his opinion in the debate over converting Gentiles was crucial, etc.[32]

The author of the  Acts of the Apostles   portrays Peter as central figure within the early Christian community.[note 1]

Denial of Jesus by Peter [ edit ] The tears of Saint Peter , by  El Greco , late 16th century Main article:  Denial of Peter The Denial of Saint Peter , by  Caravaggio , c. 1610

All four canonical gospels recount that, during the  Last Supper , Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the following cockcrow ("before the cock crows twice" in Mark's account). The three Synoptics and John describe the three denials as follows:

  1. A denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon Peter, saying that he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but not in all manuscripts), "the rooster crowed". Only Luke and John mention a fire by which Peter was warming himself among other people: according to Luke, Peter was "sitting"; according to John, he was "standing".
  2. A denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away from the firelight, but the same servant girl (Mark) or another servant girl (Matthew) or a man (Luke and also John, for whom, though, this is the third denial) told the bystanders he was a follower of Jesus. According to John, "the rooster crowed". The Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still warming himself at the fire, and gives as the occasion of the third denial a claim by someone to have seen him in the garden of  Gethsemane   when  Jesus was arrested .
  3. A denial came when Peter's Galilean accent was taken as proof that he was indeed a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, "the rooster crowed". Matthew adds that it was his  accent   that gave him away as coming from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that, rather than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual. John does not mention the Galilean accent.

In the Gospel of Luke is a record of Christ telling Peter: "Simon, Simon, behold, Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat: but I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not: and when thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren." In a reminiscent[37]   scene in John's epilogue, Peter affirms three times that he loves Jesus.

Resurrection appearances [ edit ] Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the  Sea of Galilee

Paul's  First Epistle to the Corinthians [38]   contains a list of  resurrection appearances of Jesus , the first of which is an appearance to Peter.[39]   Here, Paul apparently follows an early tradition that Peter was the first to see the risen Christ,[16]   which, however, did not seem to have survived to the time when the gospels were written.[40]

In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the  empty tomb , although the women and the  beloved disciple   see it before him.[Jn. 20:1–9]   In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles, and Peter is the only one who goes to check for himself, running to the tomb. After seeing the graveclothes he goes home, apparently without informing the other disciples.[Lk. 24:1–12]

In the  final chapter   of the Gospel of John, Peter, in one of the resurrection appearances of Jesus,  three times affirmed his love for Jesus , balancing his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter's position. The Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the  Sea of Galilee   is seen as the traditional site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and, according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme jurisdiction over the Christian church.

Leader of the early church [ edit ] The Liberation of St. Peter   from prison by an angel, by  Giovanni Lanfranco , 1620–21

Peter was considered along with James the Just and John the Apostle as pillars of the Church.[41]   Legitimised by Jesus' appearance, Peter assumed leadership of the group of early followers, forming the Jerusalem  ekklēsia   mentioned by Paul.[22] [23]   He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord."[24] [25]   According to Lüdemann, this was due to the discussions about the  strictness of adherence   to the Jewish Law, when the more conservative faction of James the Just[42]   took the overhand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost influence.[25] [note 2]   According to Dunn, this was not an "usurpation of power," but a consequence of Peter's involvement in missionary activities.[44]   The early Church historian Eusebius (c. AD 325) records  Clement of Alexandria   (c. AD 190) as saying,

For they say that Peter and  James   (the Greater) and  John   after the ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove not after honor, but chose  James the Just   bishop of Jerusalem.[45]

James D. G. Dunn   proposes that Peter was a "bridge-man" between the opposing views of Paul and  James the Just   [italics original]:

For  Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man   (pontifex maximus!)  who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of  first-century Christianity .   James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum."[46]

Paul affirms that Peter had the special charge of being apostle to the Jews, just as he, Paul, was apostle to the Gentiles. Some argue  James the Just   was  bishop of Jerusalem   whilst Peter was  bishop of Rome   and that this position at times gave James privilege in some (but not all) situations.

"Rock" dialogue [ edit ]

In a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples (Matthew 16:13–19 ), Jesus asks, "Who do people say that the  Son of Man   is?" The disciples give various answers. When he asks, "Who do  you   say that I am?" Simon Peter answers, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God." Jesus then declares:

Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Cephas (Peter) (Petros ), and on this rock (petra ) I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.

A common view of Peter is provided by Jesuit Father  Daniel J. Harrington , who suggests that Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability. While he was one of the first disciples called and was the spokesman for the group, Peter is also the exemplar of "little faith". In  Matthew 14 , Peter will soon have Jesus say to him, "O you of little faith, why did you doubt?", and he will eventually deny Jesus three times. Thus, in light of the Easter event, Peter became an exemplar of the forgiven sinner.[47]   Outside the Catholic Church, opinions vary as to the interpretation of this passage with respect to what authority and responsibility, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter.[48]

In the  Eastern Orthodox Church   this passage is interpreted as not implying a special prominence to the person of Peter, but to Peter's position as representative of the Apostles. The word used for "rock" (petra ) grammatically refers to "a small detachment of the massive ledge",[49]   not to a massive boulder. Thus, Orthodox  Sacred Tradition   understands Jesus' words as referring to the apostolic faith.

Saint Peter in Tears   by  Bartolomé Esteban Murillo   (1617–1682)

Petros   had not previously been used as a name, but in the Greek-speaking world it became a popular Christian name, after the tradition of Peter's prominence in the early Christian church had been established.

Apostolic succession [ edit ] Main article:  Apostolic succession

The leadership of Peter forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy, as the heirs of Peter,[26]   and is described as "the rock" on which the church will be built.[22]   Catholics refer to him as chief of the Apostles,[50]   as do the  Eastern Orthodox [51]   and the  Oriental Orthodox .[52] [53]   In Coptic Orthodox Church liturgy, he is once referred to as "prominent" or "head" among the Apostles, a title shared with Paul in the text (The Fraction of Fast and Feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria ). Some, including the Orthodox Churches, believe this is not the same as saying that the other Apostles were under Peter's orders.

Antioch and Corinth [ edit ]

Antioch [ edit ] Main article:  Incident at Antioch

According to the Epistle to the Galatians (2:11 ), Peter went to Antioch where Paul rebuked him for following the conservative line regarding the conversion of Gentiles, having meals separate from Gentiles.[note 3]   Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been the first  Patriarch of Antioch . According to the writings of Origen[56]   and Eusebius in his  Church History (III, 36)   Peter would have been the founder of the Church of Antioch.[57]

Later accounts expand on the brief biblical mention of his visit to  Antioch . The  Liber Pontificalis   (9th century) mentions Peter as having served as bishop of Antioch for seven years, and having potentially left his family in the Greek city before his journey to Rome.[58]   Claims of direct blood lineage from Simon Peter among the old population of Antioch existed in the 1st century and continue to exist today, notably by certain  Semaan   families of modern-day Syria and Lebanon. Historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's sojourn in Antioch.[note 4]

The  Clementine literature , a group of related works written in the fourth century but believed to contain materials from earlier centuries, relate information about Peter that may come from earlier traditions. One is that Peter had a group of 12 to 16 followers, whom the Clementine writings name.[59]   Another is that it provides an itinerary of Peter's route from  Caesarea Maritima   to Antioch, where he debated his adversary  Simon Magus ; during this journey he ordained  Zacchaeus   as the first bishop of Caesarea and Maro as the first bishop of  Tripolis . Fred Lapham suggests the route recorded in the Clementine writings may have been taken from an earlier document mentioned by  Epiphanius of Salamis   in his  Panarion   called "The Itinerary of Peter".[60]

Corinth [ edit ]

Peter may have visited  Corinth , and maybe there existed a party of "Cephas".[16]   First Corinthians   suggests that perhaps Peter visited the city of Corinth, located at Greece, during their missions.[1Cor. 1:12]

Dionysius, bishop of Corinth , in his Epistle to the Roman Church under  Pope Soter   (A.D. 165–174) declares that Peter and Paul founded the Church of Rome and the Church of Corinth, and they have lived in Corinth for some time, and finally in Italy where they found death:

You have thus by such an admonition bound together the planting of Peter and of Paul at Rome and Corinth. For both of them planted and likewise taught us in our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.[61]

Connection to Rome [ edit ] The Apostles Peter and Paul, detail of cupola fresco by  Correggio   (1520–1524)

In a tradition of the  Early Church , Peter is said to have founded the Church in Rome with Paul, served as its bishop, authored two epistles, and then met martyrdom there along with Paul.

Papacy [ edit ] Saint Peter portrayed as a Pope in the  Nuremberg Chronicle

The Catholic Church speaks of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. However, it is also said that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome.[62]

St. Clement   of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the outstanding heroes of the faith.[16]

Coming to Rome [ edit ]

New Testament accounts [ edit ]

There is no obvious biblical evidence that Peter was ever in Rome, but the first epistle of Peter does mention that "The church that is at Babylon, elected together with you, saluteth you; and so doth Marcus my son" (1 Peter 5:13 ). It is not certain whether this refers to the actual Babylon or to Rome, for which Babylon was a common nickname at the time, or to the Jewish diaspora in general, as a recent theory has proposed.[63] [64]

While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his  Epistle to the Romans   about AD 57,[65]   he greets some fifty people in Rome by name,[66]   but not Peter  whom he knew . There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in  Acts 28 , about AD 60–62.

Church Fathers [ edit ]

The writings of the 1st century Church Father  Ignatius of Antioch   (c. 35–c. 107) refer to Peter and Paul giving admonitions to the Romans, indicating Peter's presence in Rome.[67]

Irenaeus of Lyons   (c.130–c.202) wrote in the  2nd century   that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed  Linus   as succeeding bishop.[68]

Clement of Alexandria   (c. 150–c. 215) states that "Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome.  (A.D. 190) "[69]

According to  Origen   (184–253)[56]   and Eusebius,[57]   "after having first founded the church at Antioch, went away to Rome preaching the Gospel, and he also, after [presiding over] the church in Antioch, presided over that of Rome until his death".[70]   After presiding over the church in Antioch by a while, Peter would have been succeeded by  Evodius ,[71]   and thereafter by  Ignatius , who was a student of  John the Apostle .[72]

Lactantius , in his book called  Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died , written around 318, noted that "And while Nero reigned, the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and, through the power of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles, and, by turning many to the true religion, built up a faithful and stedfast temple unto the Lord."[73]

Simon Magus [ edit ]

Eusebius   of Caesarea (260/265–339/340) relates that when Peter confronts Simon Magus at Judea (mentioned in Acts 8), Simon Magus flees to Rome, where the Romans got to regard him as a god. According to Eusebius, his luck did not last long, since God sent Peter to Rome, and Simon was quenched and immediately destroyed.[74]

According to  Jerome   (327–420) "Peter went to Rome in the second year of Claudius to overthrow Simon Magus, and held the sacerdotal chair there for twenty-five years until the last, that is the fourteenth, year of Nero."[75]

An apocryphal work, the  Actus Vercellenses   (7th century), a Latin text preserved in only one manuscript copy published widely in translation under the title Acts of Peter, sets Peter's confrontation with Simon Magus in Rome.[76] [77]

Death and burial [ edit ]

Crucifixion at Rome [ edit ] Domine quo vadis?   (1602) by  Annibale Carracci

In the epilogue[78]   of the Gospel of John, Jesus hints at the death by which Peter would glorify God, saying "when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress you and carry you where you do not want to go."[Jn. 21:18–19]   This is interpreted by some as a reference to Peter's crucifixion.[37]   Theologians Donald Fay Robinson and Warren M. Smaltz have suggested that the incident in  Acts 12:1–17 , where Peter is "released by an angel" and goes to "another place", really represents an idealized account of his death, which may have occurred in a Jerusalem prison in as early as 44 AD.[79]

The  Muratorian fragment , dated to the second century A.D., notes that the primary eyewitness to Acts,  Luke , was not present at Peter's death.[80]

Early Church Tradition says that Peter probably died by  crucifixion   (with arms outstretched) at the time of the  Great Fire of Rome   in the year 64. This took place three months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the emperor (Nero) wished to blame the Christians. This "dies imperii" (regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was 'as usual' accompanied by much bloodshed. Traditionally,  Roman   authorities sentenced him to death by  crucifixion . In accordance with the  apocryphal   Acts of Peter , he was crucified head down.[81]   Tradition also locates his burial place where the  Basilica of Saint Peter   was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.

The Crucifixion of Saint Peter   (1601) by  Caravaggio

Pope Clement I   (d.99), in his  Letter to the Corinthians   (Chapter 5), written c. 80–98, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death. … Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him."[82]

The  apocryphal   Acts of Peter   (2nd cent.) (Vercelli   Acts XXXV[83] ), is the source for the tradition about the Latin famous phrase "Quo vadis, Domine? " (in Greek:  Κύριε, ποῦ ὑπάγεις "Kyrie, pou hypageis?" ), which means "Where are you going, Lord?". According to the story, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution meets the risen Jesus. In the Latin translation, Peter asks Jesus, "Quo vadis?" He replies, "Romam eo iterum crucifigi ("I am going to Rome to be crucified again"). Peter then gains the courage to continue his ministry and returns to the city, where he is martyred. This story is commemorated in an  Annibale Carracci   painting. The  Church of Quo Vadis , near the  Catacombs   of  Saint Callistus , contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was apparently an  ex-voto   from a  pilgrim , and indeed a copy of the original, housed in the  Basilica of St Sebastian .

The death of Peter is attested to by  Tertullian   (c. 155–c. 240) at the end of the 2nd century, in his  Prescription Against Heretics , noting that Peter endured a passion like his Lord's:[84]   In his work  Scorpiace 15 , he also speaks of Peter's crucifixion: "The budding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross".[85]

Origen   (184–253) in his  Commentary on the Book of Genesis III , quoted by Eusebius of Caesaria in his  Ecclesiastical History (III, 1) , said: "Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer."[50]   The  Cross of St. Peter   inverts the  Latin cross   based on this refusal, and his claim of being unworthy to die the same way as his Saviour.[86]

Peter of Alexandria   (d.311), who was bishop of  Alexandria   and died around A.D. 311, wrote an epistle  on Penance , in which he says: "Peter, the first of the apostles, having been often apprehended, and thrown into prison, and treated with ignominy, was last of all crucified at Rome".[87]

Jerome   (327-420) wrote that "At his Nero's hands Peter received the crown of martyrdom being nailed to the cross with his head towards the ground and his feet raised on high, asserting that he was unworthy to be crucified in the same manner as his Lord."[75]

Burial [ edit ] Looking down into the  confessio   near the tomb of Apostle Peter,  St. Peter's Basilica ,  Rome

Catholic tradition holds that Peter's inverted crucifixion occurred in the gardens of Nero, with the burial in  Saint Peter's tomb   nearby.[88]

Caius   in his  Disputation Against Proclus (A.D. 198) , preserved in part by Eusebius, relates this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited: "I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church".[89]

According to  Jerome , in his work  De Viris Illustribus   (A.D. 392) , "Peter was buried at Rome in the Vatican near the triumphal way where he is venerated by the whole world."[75]

In the early 4th century, the  Emperor Constantine I   decided to honour Peter with  a large basilica .[90] [91]   Because the precise location of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome, the church to house the basilica had to be erected on a site that was not convenient to construction. The slope of the  Vatican Hill   had to be excavated, even though the church could much more easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south. There were also moral and legal issues, such as demolishing a cemetery to make room for the building. The focal point of the Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter's burial.

St. Peter's Basilica , believed to be the  burial site of St. Peter , seen from the  River Tiber

Relics [ edit ]

According to a letter quoted by  Bede ,  Pope Vitalian   sent a cross containing filings said to be from Peter's chains to the queen of  Oswy ,  Anglo-Saxon   King of  Northumbria   in 665, as well as unspecified relics of the saint to the king.[92]

In 1950, human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. Peter's Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter.[93]   An attempt to contradict these claims was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe to be  Saint Peter's tomb   in Jerusalem.[94]   However along with this supposed tomb in Jerusalem bearing his previous name Simon (but not Peter), tombs bearing the names of Jesus, Mary, James, John, and the rest of the apostles were also found at the same excavation—though all these names were very common among Jews at the time.

In the 1960s, items from the excavations beneath  St Peter's Basilica   were re-examined, and the bones of a male person were identified. A forensic examination found them to be a male of about 61 years of age from the 1st century. This caused Pope Paul VI in 1968 to announce them most likely to be the relics of Apostle Peter.[95]   On November 24, 2013,  Pope Francis   revealed these relics of nine bone fragments for the first time in public during a Mass celebrated in St. Peter's Square.[96]   On July 2, 2019, it was announced that Pope Francis had transferred the nine bone fragments which were displayed during the 2013 Mass, as well as the bronze reliquary which they are displayed in, to Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch  Bartholomew of Constantinople .[97]   Bartholomew, who serves as head of the Eastern Orthodox Christian church, described the gesture as “brave and bold.”[97]

Epistles of Peter – Rome as Babylon [ edit ] Peter's vision of a sheet with animals ,  Domenico Fetti , 1619

Church tradition ascribes the epistles  First   and  Second Peter   to the Apostle Peter, as does the text of Second Peter itself, an attribution rejected by scholarship. First Peter (1 Peter 5:13 ) implies the author is in "Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome.[98]   If the reference is to Rome, it is the only biblical reference to Peter being there. Many scholars regard both First and Second Peter as not having been authored by him, partly because other parts of the  Acts of the Apostles   seem to describe Peter as an illiterate fisherman.[4] [99]

Most Biblical scholars[100] [101]   believe that "Babylon" is a metaphor for the pagan  Roman Empire   at the time it persecuted Christians, before the  Edict of Milan   in 313: perhaps specifically referencing some aspect of Rome's rule (brutality, greed,  paganism ). Although some scholars recognize that Babylon is a metaphor for Rome, they also claim that Babylon represents more than the Roman city of the first century. Craig Koester says outright that "the whore [of Babylon] is Rome, yet more than Rome".[102]   It "is the Roman imperial world, which in turn represents the world alienated from God".[103]   James L. Resseguie   says that Babylon "is not merely a representation of the Roman Empire". It is "the city of this world" and a cipher for "the tyrannical ways of evil".[104]

In  4 Ezra ,[105] [106]   2 Baruch [107]   and the  Sibylline oracles ,[108]   "Babylon" is a  cryptic   name for Rome.[109]   Reinhard Feldmeier speculates that "Babylon" is used to refer to Rome in  1 Peter 5:13 .[110]   In  Revelation 17:9   it is said that she sits on "seven mountains",[111]   typically understood as the  seven hills of Rome .[112] [113] [114] [115] [116]   A Roman coin minted under the Emperor  Vespasian   (c. 70 AD) depicts  Rome as a woman   sitting on seven hills.[117]

According to the  International Standard Bible Encyclopedia , "The characteristics ascribed to this Babylon apply to Rome rather than to any other city of that age: (a) as ruling over the kings of the earth (Revelation 17:18); (b) as sitting on seven mountains (Revelation 17:9); (c) as the center of the world's merchandise (Revelation 18:3, 11–13); (d) as the corrupter of the nations (Revelation 17:2; 18:3; 19:2); (e) as the persecutor of the saints (Revelation 17:6)."[118]

At that time in history, the ancient city of Babylon was no longer of any importance. E.g.,  Strabo   wrote, "The greater part of Babylon is so deserted that one would not hesitate to say ... The Great City is a great desert."[119]

Another theory is that Babylon term refers to the  Babylon in Egypt   that was an important  fortress city   in Egypt, just north of today's Cairo and this, combined with the "greetings from Mark" (1 Peter 5:13), who may be  Mark the Evangelist , regarded as the founder of the  Church of Alexandria   (Egypt), has led some scholars to regard the First Peter epistle as having been written in Egypt.

Papias of Hierapolis   (c. 60–163) reported that the  Gospel of Mark   was based on Peter's memoirs.[16]   Early Church tradition reports that Peter wrote from Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea states:

Clement of Alexandria   in the sixth [book] of the Hypotyposeis cites the story, and the bishop of Hierapolis named  Papias   joins him in testifying that Peter mentions Mark in the first epistle, which they say he composed in Rome herself, and that he indicates this, calling the city more figuratively Babylon by these: "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you greetings and so does my son Mark. (1 Pet 5:13)[120]

Scholarly views [ edit ]

Some church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been  martyred   under the reign of Nero,[121] [122] [123]   around AD 65 such as after the Great Fire of Rome.[124] [125] [126]   Presently, most Catholic scholars,[127]   and many scholars in general,[128]   hold the view that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero.

While accepting that Peter came to Rome and was martyred there, there is no historical evidence that he held episcopal office there.[129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [note 5]   In two extensive studies published respectively in 2009[135]   and 2013,[136]   Otto Zwierlein  [de ]   held that "there is not a single piece of reliable literary evidence (and no archaeological evidence either) that Peter ever was in Rome."[63] [137] [note 6]

Clement of Rome' First Letter , a document that has been dated from the 90s to the 120s, is one of the earliest sources adduced in support of Peter's stay in Rome, but Zwierlein questions the text's authenticity and whether it has any knowledge about Peter's life beyond what is contained in the New Testament  Acts of the Apostles .[63]   The letter also does not mention any particular place, only saying: "Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him." (ch. 5)[142]   A letter attributed to  Ignatius of Antioch   to the Romans might imply that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church,[16]   telling the Roman Christians: "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did" (ch. 4), although Zwierlein says he could be simply referring to the Epistles of the Apostles, or their mission work in the city, not a special authority given or bestowed. Zwierlein has questioned the authenticity of this document and its traditional dating to c. 105–10, who says it may date from the final decades of the 2nd century instead of from the beginning.[63]

The ancient historian  Josephus   describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions,[143]   and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of the  Acts of Peter . The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the  Acts of Peter . Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by  suffocation , the usual "cause of death in ordinary crucifixion".[144]

Feast days [ edit ]
Saint Peter
The rock upon which the church was built, Prince of the apostles, Kepha, Leader of the Apostles,[145]   Choir-director, Preeminent Apostle, Holy and All-Glorious,[146]   divinely-blessed Peter,[147]   First-enthroned of the apostles.[147]
Venerated inAll Christian denominations that venerate saints and Islam
Major  shrine St. Peter's Basilica
Feast Feast of Saints Peter and Paul
Main article:  Feast of Saints Peter and Paul See also:  St Peter's Eve

The  Roman Martyrology   assigns 29 June as the  feast day   of both Peter and  Paul , without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths.  Augustine of Hippo   says in his Sermon 295: "One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on different days, they were one."

This is also the feast of both  Apostles   in the calendar of the  Eastern Orthodox Church .

In the  Roman Rite , the feast of the  Chair of Saint Peter   is celebrated on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two  papal basilicas   of  Saint Peter's   and  Saint Paul's outside the Walls   is held on 18 November.

Before  Pope John XXIII 's revision in 1960, the Roman Calendar also included on 18 January another feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February feast was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch), and on 1 August the feast of  Saint Peter in Chains .

In the Orthodox  Daily Office   every Thursday throughout the year is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter. There are also two  feast days   in the year which are dedicated to him:

  • June 29,  Feast of Saints Peter and Paul —This is a major feast day and is preceded by a period of Lenten fasting known as the  Apostles' Fast
  • January 16,  Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and All-Glorious Apostle Peter —commemorating both the chains which  Acts 12:1–11   says miraculously fell from him, and the chains in which he was held before his  martyrdom   by  Nero .

Primacy of Peter [ edit ]

Christians of different theological backgrounds are in disagreement as to the exact significance of Peter's ministry. For instance:

  • Catholics view Peter as the first pope. The Catholic Church asserts that Peter's ministry, conferred upon him by Jesus of Nazareth in the gospels, lays down the theological foundation for the pope's exercise of pastoral authority over the Church.
  • Eastern Orthodox also believe that Peter's ministry points to an underlying theology wherein a special primacy ought to be granted to Peter's successors above other Church leaders but see this as merely a "primacy of honor", rather than the right to exercise pastoral authority.
  • Protestant denominations assert that Peter's apostolic work in Rome does not imply a connection between him and the papacy.

Similarly, historians of various backgrounds also offer differing interpretations of the Apostle's presence in Rome.

Catholic Church [ edit ] Main articles:  Primacy of Simon Peter   and  Papal primacy Statue of St. Peter in  St. Peter's Square   at the Vatican

According to Catholic belief, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the  first place of honor and authority . Also in Catholic belief, Peter was, as the first Bishop of Rome, the first  Pope . Furthermore, they consider every Pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other  bishops .[148]   Although Peter never bore the title of "Pope", or "Vicar of Christ", in this sense the Catholic Church considers Peter the first Pope.[1]

The Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of its church on Earth (with Christ being its  heavenly   head) is based on its interpretation of two passages from the  canonical gospels   of the  New Testament ; as well as  sacred tradition .

John 21:15–17 [ edit ]

The first passage is  John 21:15–17   which is: "Feed my lambs... Tend my sheep... feed my sheep" (within the Greek it is Ποίμαινε i.e., to feed and rule [as a Shepherd]., v. 16 while Βόσκε i.e., to feed., for v.15 & v. 17)[149] —which is seen by Catholics as Christ promising the spiritual supremacy to Peter. The  Catholic Encyclopedia   sees in this passage Jesus "charging [Peter] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church".[148]

Matthew 16:18 [ edit ]

The second passage is  Matthew 16:18 :

I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.

— Matthew 16:18–19 (NIV)

Etymology [ edit ]

In the story of the  calling of the disciples , Jesus addresses Simon Peter with the Greek term Κηφᾶς (Cephas ), a Hellenized form of Aramaic  ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ   (keepa ), which means "rock",[150]   a term that before was not used as a proper name:

:ἐμβλέψας αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωάννου, σὺ κληθήσῃ  Κηφᾶς   ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος.[151]

Having looked at him, Jesus said, "You are Simon the son of John; you will be called  Cephas ," which means  Petros   ("rock").—  John 1:42

Jesus later alludes to this nickname after Peter declares Jesus to be the Messiah:

:κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω ὅτι σὺ εἶ  Πέτρος   [Petros ] καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ  πέτρᾳ   [petra ] οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, καὶ πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς.[note 7]

I also say to you now that you are  Peter , and on this  rock   I will build my Church, and the gates of  Hades   will not prevail against it.— Matthew 16:18[155]

The  Peshitta   Syriac   version renders Jesus' words into  Aramaic [156]   as follows:

:ܐܳܦ݂ ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁ ܗ݈ܽܘ  ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ   ܘܥܰܠ ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ  ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ   ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂

Also I say to you that you are  Keepa , and on this  keepa   I will build my Church, and the gates of  Sheol   not will subdue it.—  Matthew 16:18[157] Statue of St. Peter in the  Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran   by  Pierre-Étienne Monnot

Paul of Tarsus   later uses the appellation Cephas in reference to Peter.[158]

Interpretation of Matthew 16:18 [ edit ]

To better understand what Christ meant, St. Basil elaborates:[159]

Though Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth them also upon others. He is the light, and yet you are the light: he is the Priest, and yet he maketh Priests: he is the rock, and he made a rock.

— Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matt. v. 14; Luke 22:19

In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the  Fisherman's Ring , which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter.[Matt. 16:18–19]   The terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in  Isaiah 22:15–23 . Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a  key   or a set of keys.

Though the authenticity of this account has been challenged, the general consensus is that these are Jesus' words.[2]

In the original  Greek   the word translated as "Peter" is  Πέτρος   (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is  πέτρα   (petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native  Aramaic language , he would have used  kepha   in both instances.[160]   The Peshitta Text   and  the Old Syriac texts   use the word "kepha" for both "Peter" and "rock" in  Matthew 16:18 .[161]   John 1:42   says Jesus called Simon "Cephas", as Paul calls him in some letters. He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.[Lk 22:31–32]   Peter also had a leadership role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11, and 15.

Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St.  John Chrysostom ) considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith (or the faith of his confession) symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the Church at large.[162]   This "double meaning" interpretation is present in the current  Catechism of the Catholic Church .[163]

Protestant arguments against the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. They often claim that in classical  Attic Greek   petros   (masculine) generally meant "pebble", while  petra   (feminine) meant "boulder" or "cliff", and accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed.[164] [165]   These popular-level writings are disputed in similar popular-level Catholic writings.[166]

The New Testament was written in  Koiné Greek , not Attic Greek, and some authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of  petros   and  petra . So far from meaning a pebble was the word  petros   that  Apollonius Rhodius   a writer of Koiné Greek of the third century B.C., used it to refer to "a huge round  boulder , a terrible quoit of  Ares   Enyalius ; four stalwart youths could not have raised it from the ground even a little".[167]

Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter, by  Pietro Perugino   (1481–82)

The feminine noun  petra   (πέτρα in Greek), translated as  rock   in the phrase "on this rock I will build my church", is also used at  1 Cor. 10:4   in describing Jesus Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ."

Although  Matthew 16   is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the 3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a "passionate disagreement" about baptism and in the 4th century by Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a lesson of the Arian Controversy for stricter discipline and centralized control.[168]   Their position is that most of the early and medieval Church interpreted the 'rock' as being a reference either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was the Son of God.[169]

Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew 16:18 and the primacy of Peter and his office, such as  Tertullian , writing:  the Lord said to Peter, 'On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed in heaven' [Matt. 16:18–19]. . . . Upon you, he says, I will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church. [170]

Epistles of Paul [ edit ]

The church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his  Epistle to the Romans   about AD 57,[65]   he greets some fifty people in Rome by name,[66]   but not Peter  whom he knew . There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in  Acts 28 , about AD 60–62. Some Church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been  martyred   under the reign of Nero,[121] [122] [123]   around AD 64 or 68.[124] [125] [126]

Protestant rejection of Catholic claims [ edit ]

Other theologically conservative Christians, including  Confessional Lutherans , also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no distinction between the words  petros   and  petra   in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of  Koine/NT Greek , including the authoritative[171]   Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon , indeed list both words and the passages that give different meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that:

We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew 18.[172]

Saint Peter   by  Dirck van Baburen   (c. 1615-1620)

Oscar Cullmann , a Lutheran theologian and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the faith of His followers. He believes the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha" was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also the name by which Christ called Peter.[173]

Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large." While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession."[173]

Cullmann concludes that while Peter  was   the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.[173]

There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic position about "Rock."[174]   Taking a somewhat different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic  Koine dialect   in which there is no distinction in meaning between  petros   and  petra . Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of  petros   was a smallish "stone," there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in  Sophocles ,  Oedipus at Colonus   v. 1595, where  petros   refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, a  petros /petra   distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun  petra   could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of  Petros   as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic  Kepha .[160]

Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact  did   mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun  taute , which allegedly means "this very" or  this same , when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and",  kai . It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with  kai , the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock he must also be the second.[175]

Unlike Oscar Cullmann,  Confessional Lutherans   and many other Protestant apologists agree that it's meaningless to elaborate the meaning of  Rock   by looking at the Aramaic language, this is true that the Jews spoke mostly Aramaic at home, however in public they usually spoke Greek. The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in public were unusual and that is why they are noted as such. And most importantly the New Testament was revealed in Koine Greek,  not   Aramaic.[176] [177] [178]

Lutheran historians even report that the Catholic church itself didn't, at least unanimously, regard Peter as the  Rock   until the 1870s:

Rome's rule for explaining the Scriptures and determining doctrine is the  Creed   of  Pius IV . This Creed binds Rome to explain the Scriptures only according to the unanimous consent of the Fathers. In the year 1870 when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16, 18. They had five different interpretations. Seventeen insisted, Peter is the rock. Sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said, Peter's faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers as the rock. — And yet Rome taught and still teaches that Peter is the rock.[179]

Eastern Orthodox [ edit ] Icon of Saint Peter, c 1500

The  Eastern Orthodox Church   regards Apostle Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles". Another title used for Peter is  Coryphaeus , which could be translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer.[180]   The church recognizes Apostle Peter's leadership role in the  early church , especially in the very early days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any "princely" role over his fellow Apostles.

The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that Peter did not act as leader at the  Council of Jerusalem , but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final decision regarding the non-necessity of  circumcision   (and certain prohibitions) was spelled out by  James, the Brother of the Lord   (though Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said, regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of Gentiles).

Eastern and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter but the  Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople   sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the  Ravenna Document   of 13 October 2007, the representatives of the  Eastern Orthodox Church   agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the  taxis , and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the  protos   among the patriarchs, if the Papacy unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as  protos , a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."

With regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession of faith,  not   the person of Peter as that upon which he will build the church. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original Greek uses the feminine demonstrative pronoun when he says "upon this rock" (ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ); whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would allegedly have used the masculine.[181]   This "gender distinction" argument is also held by some Protestants.

Syriac Orthodox Church [ edit ] Saint Peter and the angel , by  Antonio de Bellis

The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a theological interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian community.  Ephrem ,  Aphrahat   and  Maruthas   who were supposed to have been the best exponents of the early  Syriac tradition   unequivocally acknowledge the office of Peter.

The Syriac Fathers, following the rabbinic tradition, call Jesus "Kepha" for they see "rock" in the Old Testament as a messianic Symbol (yet the Old Maronite Syriacs of Lebanon still refer to Saint Peter as "Saint Simon the Generous" or Simon Karam"). When Christ gave his own name "Kepha" to Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office of Christ. Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha and said that on Kepha he would build the Church.  Aphrahat   shared the common Syriac tradition. For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the right to share the name. The person who receives somebody else's name also obtains the rights of the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. He wrote: "Jesus son of Nun set up the stones for a witness in Israel; Jesus our Saviour called Simon Kepha Sarirto and set him as the faithful witness among nations".

Again he wrote in his commentary on  Deuteronomy   that  Moses   brought forth water from "rock" (Kepha) for the people and Jesus sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations. God accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called him Kepha. When he speaks about the transfiguration of Christ he calls him  Simon Peter , the foundation of the Church. Ephrem also shared the same view. In the Armenian version of  De Virginitate   records that  Peter the rock   shunned honour. In a  mimro   of Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the importance of Peter.

Both  Aphrahat   and  Ephrem   represent the authentic tradition of the Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of Church buildings, marriage, ordination etcetera, reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.[182]

New Apostolic Church [ edit ]

The  New Apostolic Church , who believes in the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first  Chief Apostle .

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints [ edit ] Saint Peter   by  Vasco Fernandes , 1506

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints   teaches that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian church after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. While the Church accepts apostolic succession from Peter, it rejects papal successors as illegitimate.

In interpreting  Matthew 16:13–19 , Latter-day Saint leader  Bruce R. McConkie   stated, "The things of God are known only by the power of his Spirit,"[183]   and "that which the world calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of revelation."[184]   In his April 1981  general conference   address, McConkie identified the rock of which Jesus spoke as the rock of revelation: "There is no other foundation upon which the Lord could build His Church and kingdom .... Revelation: Pure, perfect, personal revelation—this is the rock!"[185]   Joseph Smith , the founder of  Mormonism , recorded in multiple revelations that Peter appeared to him and  Oliver Cowdery   in 1829, near  Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania , in order to bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a  restoration of priesthood authority .[186] [187]

Non-Christian views [ edit ]

Judaism [ edit ] Main article:  Saint Peter and Judaism

According to an old Jewish tradition, Simon Peter joined the early Christians at the decision of the Rabbis. Worried that early Christianity's similarity to Judaism would lead people to mistake it for a branch of Judaism, he was chosen to join them. As he moved up in rank, he would be able to lead them into forming their own, distinct belief system. Despite this, he was said to remain a practicing Jew, and is ascribed with the authorship of the Nishmas prayer.[188]

Islam [ edit ] Main article:  Peter in Islam

Muslims   consider  Jesus   a  prophet   of God. The  Qur'an   also speaks of Jesus's disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as "helpers to the  prophet of God ".[189]   Muslim exegesis and  Qur'an   commentary, however, names them and includes Peter among the disciples.[190]   An old tradition, which involves the legend of  Habib the Carpenter , mentions that Peter was one of the three disciples sent to  Antioch   to preach to the people there.[191]

Shia   Muslims   see a parallel in the figure of Peter to  Ali   at  Muhammad 's time. They look upon Ali as being the  vicegerent , with  Muhammad   being the  prophet ; likewise, they see Peter as the  vicegerent , behind  Jesus   the  prophet   and  Masih . Peter's role as the first proper leader of the church is also seen by Shias to be a parallel to their belief in Ali as the first  caliph   after Muhammad.[192]

Writings [ edit ]

Traditionally, two canonical epistles (1   and  2 Peter ) and several apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter.

New Testament [ edit ] St Peter   by  Francesco del Cossa , 1473

Epistles [ edit ] Main article:  Authorship of the Petrine epistles

The  New Testament   includes two letters (epistles ) ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected of an  Aramaic -speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among the early Church Fathers.

Daniel B. Wallace   (who maintains that Peter was the author) writes that, for many scholars, "the issue of authorship is already settled, at least negatively: the apostle Peter did not write this letter" and that "the vast bulk of NT scholars adopts this perspective without much discussion". However, he later states, "Although a very strong case has been made against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter, we believe it is deficient... Taken together, these external and internal arguments strongly suggest the traditional view, viz., that Peter was indeed the author of the second epistle which bears his name."[193]

Of the two epistles, the  first epistle   is considered the earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an  amanuensis .[194]

Jerome   explains:

The two Epistles attributed to St. Peter differ in style, character, and the construction of the words, which proves that according to the exigencies of the moment St. Peter made use of different interpreters  (Epistle 120 – To Hedibia) [195]

Some have seen a reference to the use of a secretary in the sentence: "By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye stand".[1 Pet. 5:12]   However New Testament scholar  Bart D. Ehrman   in his 2011 book  Forged   states that "scholars now widely recognize that when the author indicates that he wrote the book 'through Silvanus', he is indicating not the name of his secretary, but the person who was carrying his letter to the recipients."[196]   The letter refers to Roman persecution of Christians, apparently of an official nature. The Roman historian  Tacitus   and the biographer  Suetonius   do both record that Nero persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. Christian tradition, for example Eusebius of Caesarea (History   book 2, 24.1), has maintained that Peter was killed in Nero's persecution, and thus had to assume that the Roman persecution alluded to in First Peter must be this Neronian persecution.[194]   On the other hand, many modern scholars argue that First Peter refers to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor  Domitian   (81–96), as the letter is explicitly addressed to Jewish Christians from that region:

Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace and peace be yours in abundance.[1Pet 1:1–2]

Those scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the time of Domitian argue that Nero's persecution of Christians was confined to the city of Rome itself, and did not extend to the Asian provinces mentioned in 1 Pet 1:1–2.

The  Second Epistle of Peter , on the other hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the  Epistle of Jude , and some modern scholars date its composition as late as  c.   150. Some scholars argue the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied Second Peter, while others contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text.[194]   Many scholars have noted the similarities between the  apocryphal   Second Epistle of Clement   (2nd century) and Second Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150, there are a few possible references to it that date back to the 1st century or early 2nd century, e.g.,  1 Clement   written in  c.   AD 96, and the later church historian Eusebius wrote that  Origen   had made reference to the epistle before 250.  [194] [197]

Jerome says that Peter "wrote two epistles which are called Catholic, the second of which, on account of its difference from the first in style, is considered by many not to be by him".  (De Viris Illustribus 1) [198]   But he himself received the epistle, and explained the difference in style and character and structure of words by the assumption that Peter used different interpreters in the composition of the two epistles;[195]   and from his time onward the epistle was generally regarded as a part of the New Testament.

Even in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and Second Peter was often not included in the  biblical canon ; it was only in the 4th century that it gained a firm foothold in the New Testament, in a series of synods. In the east the  Syriac Orthodox Church   still did not admit it into the canon until the 6th century.[194]

Mark [ edit ]

Traditionally, the  Gospel of Mark   was said to have been written by a person named  John Mark , and that this person was an assistant to Peter, hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest to Peter's viewpoint. According to Eusebius'  |Ecclesiastical History ,  Papias   recorded this belief from  John the Presbyter :

Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements[199]

Clement of Alexandria in the fragments of his work  Hypotyposes (A.D. 190)   preserved and cited by the historian Eusebius in his Church History (VI, 14: 6) writes that:

As Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested that  Mark , who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it.[69]

Also Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:

After their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter.[200]

Based on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information in Mark's gospel about Peter would be based on eyewitness material.[194]   The gospel itself is  anonymous , and the above passages are the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.[194]

Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha [ edit ] The  key   as symbol of St. Peter

There are also a number of other  apocryphal   writings, that have been either attributed to or written about Peter. These include:

  • Gospel of Peter , a partially  Docetic   narrative that has survived in part
  • Acts of Peter
  • Acts of Peter and Andrew
  • Acts of Peter and Paul
  • Acts of Peter and the Twelve
  • Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
  • A  Letter of Peter to Philip , which was preserved in the  Nag Hammadi library
  • Apocalypse of Peter , which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the 4th century
  • The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to the Apostle Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the  Clementine literature

Non-canonical sayings of Peter [ edit ] Miraculous catch of fish , by  Aelbrecht Bouts

Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the gnostic  Gospel of Thomas . In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger."[201]   In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life."[202]   In the  Apocalypse of Peter , Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about the  parable of the fig tree   and the fate of  sinners .[203]   In the  Gospel of Mary , whose text is largely fragmented, Peter appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably  Mary Magdalene ). He says to the other disciples, "Did He really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?"[204]   In reply to this, Levi says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered."[204]   Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the  Secret Book of James   and the  Acts of Peter .

In the  Fayyum Fragment , which dates to the end of the 3rd century, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before a  cock   crows on the following morning. The account is similar to that of the canonical gospels, especially the  Gospel of Mark . It is unclear whether the fragment is an abridged version of the accounts in the  synoptic gospels , or a source text on which they were based, perhaps the apocryphal Gospel of Peter.[205]

The fragmentary  Gospel of Peter   contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the  empty tomb , "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea."[206]

Iconography [ edit ] Saint Peter sinking on water   by  Eero Järnefelt   (1892)

The earliest portrait of Peter dates back to the 4th century and was located in 2010.[207]   In traditional  iconography , Peter has been shown very consistently since  early Christian art   as an oldish thick-set man with a "slightly combative" face and a short beard, and usually white hair, sometimes balding. He thus contrasts with  Paul the Apostle   who is bald except at the sides, with a longer beard and often black hair, and thinner in the face. One exception to this is in  Anglo-Saxon art , where he typically lacks a beard. Both Peter and Paul are shown thus as early as the 4th century  Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter   in Rome.[208]   Later in the Middle Ages his  attribute   is one or two large keys in his hand or hanging from his belt, first seen in the early 8th century.[209]   More than many medieval attributes, this continued to be depicted in the Renaissance and afterwards. By the 15th century Peter is more likely to be bald on the top of his head in the Western church, but he continues to have a good head of hair in Orthodox icons.

The depiction of Saint Peter as literally the keeper of the gates of heaven, popular with modern cartoonists, is not found in traditional religious art, but Peter usually heads groups of saints flanking God in heaven, on the right hand side (viewer's left) of God. Narrative images of Peter include several scenes from the  Life of Christ   where he is mentioned in the gospels, and he is often identifiable in scenes where his presence is not specifically mentioned. Usually he stands nearest to Christ. In particular, depictions of the  Arrest of Christ   usually include Peter cutting off the ear of one of the soldiers. Scenes without Jesus include his distinctive martyrdom, his rescue from prison, and sometimes his trial. In the  Counter-Reformation   scenes of Peter hearing the cock crow for the third time became popular, as a representation of  repentance   and hence the Catholic  sacrament   of  Confession   or Repentance.

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