Seller:sidewaysstairsco✉️(1,180)100%,
Location:Santa Ana, California, US,
Ships to: US,
Item:19604153765335" GRIM REAPER TOMBSTONE Light Up See You Soon large gravestone death styrofoam. Check out our store for more great new and used items! FOR SALE: A large and hard-to-find polystyrene foam headstone 35" "SEE YOU SOON" LIGHT-UP TOMBSTONE DETAILS: Death awaits... Embrace
the spirit of the season and create a truly memorable Halloween display
with Hyde and Eek Boutique's "See You Soon" Styrofoam grave marker. The
large but very lightweight gravestone is embraced by an exquisite
example of an angel of death, creating an eerie and haunting atmosphere.
This sinister specter holds a menacing scythe in one hand while
pointing with the other to the ominous inscription, making it clear that
"death" is just around the corner. The inscription "See You Soon" and
the grim reaper's eyes glow with a haunting orange hue when lit, adding
an extra layer of spookiness to your Halloween display. Whether
you're hosting a haunted house, setting up a spooky graveyard display,
or looking to add that extra dose of eerie elegance to your Halloween
party or house of horrors, this macabre masterpiece is the perfect
choice. And it's a great prop for theatrical performances, escape rooms,
or horror-themed events. Customize it! Unleash
your artistic skills by dirtying/staining or adding paint, foliage, or
other decorative touches to the tombstone to suit your unique Halloween
vision. The Styrofoam material allows for easy customization or
enhancement, empowering you to augment or create realistic textures and
weathered effects. Let your imagination guide you as you add your own
creative touch. Battery-powered with "Try Me" button! The
tombstone's light feature can be activated by either pressing the
"On/Off" button on the backside, or temporarily, by pressing and holding
the "Try Me" button (light stays on until you let go). This Halloween
decoration requires 2 "AA" batteries to illuminate the grim reaper's
eyes and the inscription (batteries not included) .
The "Try Me" (demo) button is powered by a small, button-style battery.
Please note that the demo battery will need replacing upon receiving
the item. Indoor and Outdoor Use! This
lightweight tombstone is perfect for both indoor and outdoor settings.
Whether you're creating a haunting scene in your living room or
transforming your front yard into a bone-chilling cemetery, this prop is
ready to make an impact. Includes ground stakes! Implanting
the tombstone is a breeze with the included plastic anchoring stakes.
When not in use, the ground stakes conveniently store in a recessed
section on the back of the tombstone. Its lightweight construction makes it easy to transport and set up wherever you desire. A must-have for the Halloween fanatic! Makes a great gift for the Halloween enthusiast and collector, especially those who love all-things grim reaper and the macabre. CONDITION: New in shrink wrap. Please see photos. To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out. THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK. *ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* "Halloween
or Hallowe'en (less commonly known as Allhalloween,[5] All Hallows'
Eve,[6] or All Saints' Eve)[7] is a celebration observed in many
countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All
Saints' Day. It begins the observance of Allhallowtide,[8] the time in
the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints
(hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed.[9][10][11][12] One
theory holds that many Halloween traditions were influenced by Celtic
harvest festivals, particularly the Gaelic festival Samhain, which are
believed to have pagan roots.[13][14][15][16] Some go further and
suggest that Samhain may have been Christianized as All Hallow's Day,
along with its eve, by the early Church.[17] Other academics believe
Halloween began solely as a Christian holiday, being the vigil of All
Hallow's Day.[18][19][20][21] Celebrated in Ireland and Scotland for
centuries, Irish and Scottish immigrants took many Halloween customs to
North America in the 19th century,[22][23] and then through American
influence Halloween had spread to other countries by the late 20th and
early 21st century.[24][25] Popular Halloween activities include
trick-or-treating (or the related guising and souling), attending
Halloween costume parties, carving pumpkins or turnips into
jack-o'-lanterns, lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, divination games,
playing pranks, visiting haunted attractions, telling scary stories, and
watching horror or Halloween-themed films.[26] Some people practice the
Christian religious observances of All Hallows' Eve, including
attending church services and lighting candles on the graves of the
dead,[27][28][29] although it is a secular celebration for
others.[30][31][32] Some Christians historically abstained from meat on
All Hallows' Eve, a tradition reflected in the eating of certain
vegetarian foods on this vigil day, including apples, potato pancakes,
and soul cakes.[33][34][35][36] Etymology "Halloween" (1785) by Scottish poet Robert Burns, recounts various legends of the holiday. The
word Halloween or Hallowe'en ("Saints' evening"[37]) is of Christian
origin;[38][39] a term equivalent to "All Hallows Eve" is attested in
Old English.[40] The word hallowe[']en comes from the Scottish form of
All Hallows' Eve (the evening before All Hallows' Day):[41] even is the
Scots term for "eve" or "evening",[42] and is contracted to e'en or
een;[43] (All) Hallow(s) E(v)en became Hallowe'en. History Christian origins and historic customs Halloween
is thought to have influences from Christian beliefs and
practices.[44][45] The English word 'Halloween' comes from "All Hallows'
Eve", being the evening before the Christian holy days of All Hallows'
Day (All Saints' Day) on 1 November and All Souls' Day on 2
November.[46] Since the time of the early Church,[47] major feasts in
Christianity (such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) had vigils that
began the night before, as did the feast of All Hallows'.[48][44] These
three days are collectively called Allhallowtide and are a time when
Western Christians honour all saints and pray for recently departed
souls who have yet to reach Heaven. Commemorations of all saints and
martyrs were held by several churches on various dates, mostly in
springtime.[49] In 4th-century Roman Edessa it was held on 13 May, and
on 13 May 609, Pope Boniface IV re-dedicated the Pantheon in Rome to "St
Mary and all martyrs".[50] This was the date of Lemuria, an ancient
Roman festival of the dead.[51] In the 8th century, Pope Gregory
III (731–741) founded an oratory in St Peter's for the relics "of the
holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors".[44][52] Some
sources say it was dedicated on 1 November,[53] while others say it was
on Palm Sunday in April 732.[54][55] By 800, there is evidence that
churches in Ireland[56] and Northumbria were holding a feast
commemorating all saints on 1 November.[57] Alcuin of Northumbria, a
member of Charlemagne's court, may then have introduced this 1 November
date in the Frankish Empire.[58] In 835, it became the official date in
the Frankish Empire.[57] Some suggest this was due to Celtic influence,
while others suggest it was a Germanic idea,[57] although it is claimed
that both Germanic and Celtic-speaking peoples commemorated the dead at
the beginning of winter.[59] They may have seen it as the most fitting
time to do so, as it is a time of 'dying' in nature.[57][59] It is also
suggested the change was made on the "practical grounds that Rome in
summer could not accommodate the great number of pilgrims who flocked to
it", and perhaps because of public health concerns over Roman Fever,
which claimed a number of lives during Rome's sultry summers.[60][44] On
All Hallows' Eve, Christians in some parts of the world visit
cemeteries to pray and place flowers and candles on the graves of their
loved ones.[61] Top: Christians in Bangladesh lighting candles on the
headstone of a relative. Bottom: Lutheran Christians praying and
lighting candles in front of the central crucifix of a graveyard. By
the end of the 12th century, the celebration had become known as the
holy days of obligation in Western Christianity and involved such
traditions as ringing church bells for souls in purgatory. It was also
"customary for criers dressed in black to parade the streets, ringing a
bell of mournful sound and calling on all good Christians to remember
the poor souls".[62] The Allhallowtide custom of baking and sharing soul
cakes for all christened souls,[63] has been suggested as the origin of
trick-or-treating.[64] The custom dates back at least as far as the
15th century[65] and was found in parts of England, Wales, Flanders,
Bavaria and Austria.[66] Groups of poor people, often children, would go
door-to-door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul cakes, in exchange
for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the givers' friends
and relatives. This was called "souling".[65][67][68] Soul cakes were
also offered for the souls themselves to eat,[66] or the 'soulers' would
act as their representatives.[69] As with the Lenten tradition of hot
cross buns, soul cakes were often marked with a cross, indicating they
were baked as alms.[70] Shakespeare mentions souling in his comedy The
Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593).[71] While souling, Christians would
carry "lanterns made of hollowed-out turnips", which could have
originally represented souls of the dead;[72][73] jack-o'-lanterns were
used to ward off evil spirits.[74][75] On All Saints' and All Souls' Day
during the 19th century, candles were lit in homes in Ireland,[76]
Flanders, Bavaria, and in Tyrol, where they were called "soul
lights",[77] that served "to guide the souls back to visit their earthly
homes".[78] In many of these places, candles were also lit at graves on
All Souls' Day.[77] In Brittany, libations of milk were poured on the
graves of kinfolk,[66] or food would be left overnight on the dinner
table for the returning souls;[77] a custom also found in Tyrol and
parts of Italy.[79][77] Christian minister Prince Sorie Conteh
linked the wearing of costumes to the belief in vengeful ghosts: "It was
traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the
earth until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided one last
chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to
the next world. In order to avoid being recognized by any soul that
might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or
costumes".[80] In the Middle Ages, churches in Europe that were too poor
to display relics of martyred saints at Allhallowtide let parishioners
dress up as saints instead.[81][82] Some Christians observe this custom
at Halloween today.[83] Lesley Bannatyne believes this could have been a
Christianization of an earlier pagan custom.[84] Many Christians in
mainland Europe, especially in France, believed "that once a year, on
Hallowe'en, the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild, hideous
carnival" known as the danse macabre, which was often depicted in church
decoration.[85] Christopher Allmand and Rosamond McKitterick write in
The New Cambridge Medieval History that the danse macabre urged
Christians "not to forget the end of all earthly things".[86] The danse
macabre was sometimes enacted in European village pageants and court
masques, with people "dressing up as corpses from various strata of
society", and this may be the origin of Halloween costume
parties.[87][88][89][72] In Britain, these customs came under
attack during the Reformation, as Protestants berated purgatory as a
"popish" doctrine incompatible with the Calvinist doctrine of
predestination. State-sanctioned ceremonies associated with the
intercession of saints and prayer for souls in purgatory were abolished
during the Elizabethan reform, though All Hallow's Day remained in the
English liturgical calendar to "commemorate saints as godly human
beings".[90] For some Nonconformist Protestants, the theology of All
Hallows' Eve was redefined; "souls cannot be journeying from Purgatory
on their way to Heaven, as Catholics frequently believe and assert.
Instead, the so-called ghosts are thought to be in actuality evil
spirits".[91] Other Protestants believed in an intermediate state known
as Hades (Bosom of Abraham).[92] In some localities, Catholics and
Protestants continued souling, candlelit processions, or ringing church
bells for the dead;[46][93] the Anglican church eventually suppressed
this bell-ringing.[94] Mark Donnelly, a professor of medieval
archaeology, and historian Daniel Diehl write that "barns and homes were
blessed to protect people and livestock from the effect of witches, who
were believed to accompany the malignant spirits as they traveled the
earth".[95] After 1605, Hallowtide was eclipsed in England by Guy Fawkes
Night (5 November), which appropriated some of its customs.[96] In
England, the ending of official ceremonies related to the intercession
of saints led to the development of new, unofficial Hallowtide customs.
In 18th–19th century rural Lancashire, Catholic families gathered on
hills on the night of All Hallows' Eve. One held a bunch of burning
straw on a pitchfork while the rest knelt around him, praying for the
souls of relatives and friends until the flames went out. This was known
as teen'lay.[97] There was a similar custom in Hertfordshire, and the
lighting of 'tindle' fires in Derbyshire.[98] Some suggested these
'tindles' were originally lit to "guide the poor souls back to
earth".[99] In Scotland and Ireland, old Allhallowtide customs that were
at odds with Reformed teaching were not suppressed as they "were
important to the life cycle and rites of passage of local communities"
and curbing them would have been difficult.[22] In parts of Italy
until the 15th century, families left a meal out for the ghosts of
relatives, before leaving for church services.[79] In 19th-century
Italy, churches staged "theatrical re-enactments of scenes from the
lives of the saints" on All Hallow's Day, with "participants represented
by realistic wax figures".[79] In 1823, the graveyard of Holy Spirit
Hospital in Rome presented a scene in which bodies of those who recently
died were arrayed around a wax statue of an angel who pointed upward
towards heaven.[79] In the same country, "parish priests went
house-to-house, asking for small gifts of food which they shared among
themselves throughout that night".[79] In Spain, they continue to bake
special pastries called "bones of the holy" (Spanish: Huesos de Santo)
and set them on graves.[100] At cemeteries in Spain and France, as well
as in Latin America, priests lead Christian processions and services
during Allhallowtide, after which people keep an all night vigil.[101]
In 19th-century San Sebastián, there was a procession to the city
cemetery at Allhallowtide, an event that drew beggars who "appeal[ed] to
the tender recollectons of one's deceased relations and friends" for
sympathy.[102] Gaelic folk influence An early 20th-century Irish Halloween mask displayed at the Museum of Country Life Today's
Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs
and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries, some of which are
believed to have pagan roots.[103] Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes
that "there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between
customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated
with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived".[104] The
origins of Halloween customs are typically linked to the Gaelic festival
Samhain.[105] Samhain is one of the quarter days in the medieval
Gaelic calendar and has been celebrated on 31 October – 1 November[106]
in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.[107][108] A kindred festival
has been held by the Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Kalan
Gwav in Cornwall and Kalan Goañv in Brittany; a name meaning "first day
of winter". For the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset; thus the
festival begins the evening before 1 November by modern reckoning.[109]
Samhain is mentioned in some of the earliest Irish literature. The names
have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up
until the 19th century,[110] and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names
for Halloween. Snap-Apple Night, painted by Daniel Maclise in 1833,
shows people feasting and playing divination games on Halloween in
Ireland.[111] Samhain marked the end of the harvest season and
beginning of winter or the 'darker half' of the year.[112][113] It was
seen as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the
Otherworld thinned. This meant the Aos Sí, the 'spirits' or 'fairies',
could more easily come into this world and were particularly
active.[114][115] Most scholars see them as "degraded versions of
ancient gods [...] whose power remained active in the people's minds
even after they had been officially replaced by later religious
beliefs".[116] They were both respected and feared, with individuals
often invoking the protection of God when approaching their
dwellings.[117][118] At Samhain, the Aos Sí were appeased to ensure the
people and livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink,
or portions of the crops, were left outside for them.[119][120][121] The
souls of the dead were also said to revisit their homes seeking
hospitality.[122] Places were set at the dinner table and by the fire to
welcome them.[123] The belief that the souls of the dead return home on
one night of the year and must be appeased seems to have ancient
origins and is found in many cultures.[66] In 19th century Ireland,
"candles would be lit and prayers formally offered for the souls of the
dead. After this the eating, drinking, and games would begin".[124] Throughout
Ireland and Britain, especially in the Celtic-speaking regions, the
household festivities included divination rituals and games intended to
foretell one's future, especially regarding death and marriage.[125]
Apples and nuts were often used, and customs included apple bobbing, nut
roasting, scrying or mirror-gazing, pouring molten lead or egg whites
into water, dream interpretation, and others.[126] Special bonfires were
lit and there were rituals involving them. Their flames, smoke, and
ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.[112] In some
places, torches lit from the bonfire were carried sunwise around homes
and fields to protect them.[110] It is suggested the fires were a kind
of imitative or sympathetic magic – they mimicked the Sun and held back
the decay and darkness of winter.[123][127][128] They were also used for
divination and to ward off evil spirits.[74] In Scotland, these
bonfires and divination games were banned by the church elders in some
parishes.[129] In Wales, bonfires were also lit to "prevent the souls of
the dead from falling to earth".[130] Later, these bonfires "kept away
the devil".[131] photograph A plaster cast of a traditional Irish Halloween turnip (rutabaga) lantern on display in the Museum of Country Life, Ireland[132] From
at least the 16th century,[133] the festival included mumming and
guising in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales.[134] This
involved people going house-to-house in costume (or in disguise),
usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food. It may have
originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí, or
the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf, similar
to 'souling'. Impersonating these beings, or wearing a disguise, was
also believed to protect oneself from them.[135] In parts of southern
Ireland, the guisers included a hobby horse. A man dressed as a Láir
Bhán (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting verses – some of
which had pagan overtones – in exchange for food. If the household
donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not
doing so would bring misfortune.[136] In Scotland, youths went
house-to-house with masked, painted or blackened faces, often
threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[134] F. Marian
McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume
representing the spirits, and that faces were marked or blackened with
ashes from the sacred bonfire.[133] In parts of Wales, men went about
dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod.[134] In the late 19th and
early 20th century, young people in Glamorgan and Orkney
cross-dressed.[134] Elsewhere in Europe, mumming was part of
other festivals, but in the Celtic-speaking regions, it was
"particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were
said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human
wanderers".[134] From at least the 18th century, "imitating malignant
spirits" led to playing pranks in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.
Wearing costumes and playing pranks at Halloween did not spread to
England until the 20th century.[134] Pranksters used hollowed-out
turnips or mangel wurzels as lanterns, often carved with grotesque
faces.[134] By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to
represent the spirits,[134] or used to ward off evil spirits.[137][138]
They were common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the
19th century,[134] as well as in Somerset (see Punkie Night). In the
20th century they spread to other parts of Britain and became generally
known as jack-o'-lanterns.[134] Spread to North America The annual
New York Halloween Parade in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, is the
world's largest Halloween parade, with millions of spectators annually,
and has its roots in New York’s queer community.[139] Lesley
Bannatyne and Cindy Ott write that Anglican colonists in the southern
United States and Catholic colonists in Maryland "recognized All
Hallow's Eve in their church calendars",[140][141] although the Puritans
of New England strongly opposed the holiday, along with other
traditional celebrations of the established Church, including
Christmas.[142] Almanacs of the late 18th and early 19th century give no
indication that Halloween was widely celebrated in North America.[22] It
was not until after mass Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th
century that Halloween became a major holiday in America.[22] Most
American Halloween traditions were inherited from the Irish and
Scots,[23][143] though "In Cajun areas, a nocturnal Mass was said in
cemeteries on Halloween night. Candles that had been blessed were placed
on graves, and families sometimes spent the entire night at the
graveside".[144] Originally confined to these immigrant communities, it
was gradually assimilated into mainstream society and was celebrated
coast to coast by people of all social, racial, and religious
backgrounds by the early 20th century.[145] Then, through American
influence, these Halloween traditions spread to many other countries by
the late 20th and early 21st century, including to mainland Europe and
some parts of the Far East.[24][25][146] Symbols At Halloween,
yards, public spaces, and some houses may be decorated with
traditionally macabre symbols including skeletons, ghosts, cobwebs,
headstones, and scary looking witches. Development of artifacts
and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time. Jack-o'-lanterns
are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows' Eve in order to
frighten evil spirits.[73][147] There is a popular Irish Christian
folktale associated with the jack-o'-lantern,[148] which in folklore is
said to represent a "soul who has been denied entry into both heaven and
hell":[149] On route home after a night's drinking, Jack
encounters the Devil and tricks him into climbing a tree. A
quick-thinking Jack etches the sign of the cross into the bark, thus
trapping the Devil. Jack strikes a bargain that Satan can never claim
his soul. After a life of sin, drink, and mendacity, Jack is refused
entry to heaven when he dies. Keeping his promise, the Devil refuses to
let Jack into hell and throws a live coal straight from the fires of
hell at him. It was a cold night, so Jack places the coal in a hollowed
out turnip to stop it from going out, since which time Jack and his
lantern have been roaming looking for a place to rest.[150] In
Ireland and Scotland, the turnip has traditionally been carved during
Halloween,[151][152] but immigrants to North America used the native
pumpkin, which is both much softer and much larger, making it easier to
carve than a turnip.[151] The American tradition of carving pumpkins is
recorded in 1837[153] and was originally associated with harvest time in
general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the
mid-to-late 19th century.[154] Decorated house in Weatherly, Pennsylvania The
modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including
Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror
literature (such as the novels Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus
and Dracula) and classic horror films such as Frankenstein (1931) and
The Mummy (1932).[155][156] Imagery of the skull, a reference to
Golgotha in the Christian tradition, serves as "a reminder of death and
the transitory quality of human life" and is consequently found in
memento mori and vanitas compositions;[157] skulls have therefore been
commonplace in Halloween, which touches on this theme.[158]
Traditionally, the back walls of churches are "decorated with a
depiction of the Last Judgment, complete with graves opening and the
dead rising, with a heaven filled with angels and a hell filled with
devils", a motif that has permeated the observance of this triduum.[159]
One of the earliest works on the subject of Halloween is from Scottish
poet John Mayne, who, in 1780, made note of pranks at Halloween; "What
fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the
night, "bogles" (ghosts),[160] influencing Robert Burns' "Halloween"
(1785).[161] Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn
husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated
with these types of symbols around Halloween. Halloween imagery includes
themes of death, evil, and mythical monsters.[162] Black cats, which
have been long associated with witches, are also a common symbol of
Halloween. Black, orange, and sometimes purple are Halloween's
traditional colors.[163] Trick-or-treating and guising Main article: Trick-or-treating Trick-or-treaters in Sweden Trick-or-treating
is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in
costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or
sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat?" The word "trick"
implies a "threat" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their
property if no treat is given.[64] The practice is said to have roots in
the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to
souling.[164] John Pymm wrote that "many of the feast days associated
with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian
Church."[165] These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas,
Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday.[166][167] Mumming practiced in
Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe,[168] involved masked
persons in fancy dress who "paraded the streets and entered houses to
dance or play dice in silence".[169] Girl in a Halloween costume in
1928, Ontario, Canada, the same province where the Scottish Halloween
custom of guising was first recorded in North America In England,
from the medieval period,[170] up until the 1930s,[171] people
practiced the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved
groups of soulers, both Protestant and Catholic,[93] going from parish
to parish, begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for
the souls of the givers and their friends.[67] In the Philippines, the
practice of souling is called Pangangaluluwa and is practiced on All
Hallow's Eve among children in rural areas.[26] People drape themselves
in white cloths to represent souls and then visit houses, where they
sing in return for prayers and sweets.[26] In Scotland and
Ireland, guising – children disguised in costume going from door to door
for food or coins – is a traditional Halloween custom.[172] It is
recorded in Scotland at Halloween in 1895 where masqueraders in disguise
carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be
rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money.[152][173] In Ireland, the most
popular phrase for kids to shout (until the 2000s) was "Help the
Halloween Party".[172] The practice of guising at Halloween in North
America was first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston,
Ontario, Canada, reported children going "guising" around the
neighborhood.[174] American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley
of Massachusetts wrote the first book-length history of Halloween in
the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the
chapter "Hallowe'en in America".[175] In her book, Kelley touches on
customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered
them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have
been in its best days overseas. All Halloween customs in the United
States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other
countries".[176] While the first reference to "guising" in North
America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween
appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in
1920.[177] The earliest known use in print of the term "trick or treat"
appears in 1927, in the Blackie Herald, of Alberta, Canada.[178] An automobile trunk at a trunk-or-treat event at St. John Lutheran Church and Early Learning Center in Darien, Illinois The
thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th
century and the 1920s commonly show children but not
trick-or-treating.[179] Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a
widespread practice in North America until the 1930s, with the first US
appearances of the term in 1934,[180] and the first use in a national
publication occurring in 1939.[181] A popular variant of
trick-or-treating, known as trunk-or-treating (or Halloween tailgating),
occurs when "children are offered treats from the trunks of cars parked
in a church parking lot", or sometimes, a school parking lot.[100][182]
In a trunk-or-treat event, the trunk (boot) of each automobile is
decorated with a certain theme,[183] such as those of children's
literature, movies, scripture, and job roles.[184] Trunk-or-treating has
grown in popularity due to its perception as being more safe than going
door to door, a point that resonates well with parents, as well as the
fact that it "solves the rural conundrum in which homes [are] built a
half-mile apart".[185][186] Costumes Main article: Halloween costume Halloween
costumes were traditionally modeled after figures such as vampires,
ghosts, skeletons, scary looking witches, and devils.[64] Over time, the
costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction,
celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses. Halloween shop in Derry, Northern Ireland, selling masks Dressing
up in costumes and going "guising" was prevalent in Scotland and
Ireland at Halloween by the late 19th century.[152] A Scottish term, the
tradition is called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn
by the children.[173] In Ireland and Scotland, the masks are known as
'false faces',[38][187] a term recorded in Ayr, Scotland in 1890 by a
Scot describing guisers: "I had mind it was Halloween . . . the wee
callans were at it already, rinning aboot wi’ their fause-faces (false
faces) on and their bits o’ turnip lanthrons (lanterns) in their haun
(hand)".[38] Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in
the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children, and when
trick-or-treating was becoming popular in Canada and the US in the 1920s
and 1930s.[178][188] Eddie J. Smith, in his book Halloween,
Hallowed is Thy Name, offers a religious perspective to the wearing of
costumes on All Hallows' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as
creatures "who at one time caused us to fear and tremble", people are
able to poke fun at Satan "whose kingdom has been plundered by our
Saviour". Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations
used as memento mori.[189][190] "Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" is a
fundraising program to support UNICEF,[64] a United Nations Programme
that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries.
Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in
1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the
distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate
sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters,
in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they
visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118
million for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF
decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety
and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they
instead redesigned the program.[191][192] The yearly New York's
Village Halloween Parade was begun in 1974; it is the world's largest
Halloween parade and America's only major nighttime parade, attracting
more than 60,000 costumed participants, two million spectators, and a
worldwide television audience.[193] Since the late 2010s, ethnic
stereotypes as costumes have increasingly come under scrutiny in the
United States.[194] Such and other potentially offensive costumes have
been met with increasing public disapproval.[195][196] Pet costumes According
to a 2018 report from the National Retail Federation, 30 million
Americans will spend an estimated $480 million on Halloween costumes for
their pets in 2018. This is up from an estimated $200 million in 2010.
The most popular costumes for pets are the pumpkin, followed by the hot
dog, and the bumblebee in third place.[197] Games and other activities In
this 1904 Halloween greeting card, divination is depicted: the young
woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse
of her future husband. There are several games traditionally
associated with Halloween. Some of these games originated as divination
rituals or ways of foretelling one's future, especially regarding death,
marriage and children. During the Middle Ages, these rituals were done
by a "rare few" in rural communities as they were considered to be
"deadly serious" practices.[198] In recent centuries, these divination
games have been "a common feature of the household festivities" in
Ireland and Britain.[125] They often involve apples and hazelnuts. In
Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld
and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine
wisdom.[199] Some also suggest that they derive from Roman practices in
celebration of Pomona.[64] Children bobbing for apples at Hallowe'en The
following activities were a common feature of Halloween in Ireland and
Britain during the 17th–20th centuries. Some have become more widespread
and continue to be popular today. One common game is apple bobbing or
dunking (which may be called "dooking" in Scotland)[200] in which apples
float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use
only their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. A variant of dunking
involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and
trying to drive the fork into an apple. Another common game involves
hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be
eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an
activity that inevitably leads to a sticky face. Another once-popular
game involves hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head
height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the
other. The rod is spun round and everyone takes turns to try to catch
the apple with their teeth.[201] Image from the Book of Hallowe'en (1919) showing several Halloween activities, such as nut roasting Several
of the traditional activities from Ireland and Britain involve
foretelling one's future partner or spouse. An apple would be peeled in
one long strip, then the peel tossed over the shoulder. The peel is
believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's
name.[202][203] Two hazelnuts would be roasted near a fire; one named
for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desire.
If the nuts jump away from the heat, it is a bad sign, but if the nuts
roast quietly it foretells a good match.[204][205] A salty oatmeal
bannock would be baked; the person would eat it in three bites and then
go to bed in silence without anything to drink. This is said to result
in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench
their thirst.[206] Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a
darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of
their future husband would appear in the mirror.[207] The custom was
widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards[208] from the
late 19th century and early 20th century. Another popular Irish
game was known as púicíní ("blindfolds"); a person would be blindfolded
and then would choose between several saucers. The item in the saucer
would provide a hint as to their future: a ring would mean that they
would marry soon; clay, that they would die soon, perhaps within the
year; water, that they would emigrate; rosary beads, that they would
take Holy Orders (become a nun, priest, monk, etc.); a coin, that they
would become rich; a bean, that they would be poor.[209][210][211][212]
The game features prominently in the James Joyce short story "Clay"
(1914).[213][214][215] In Ireland and Scotland, items would be
hidden in food – usually a cake, barmbrack, cranachan, champ or
colcannon – and portions of it served out at random. A person's future
would be foretold by the item they happened to find; for example, a ring
meant marriage and a coin meant wealth.[216] Up until the 19th
century, the Halloween bonfires were also used for divination in parts
of Scotland, Wales and Brittany. When the fire died down, a ring of
stones would be laid in the ashes, one for each person. In the morning,
if any stone was mislaid it was said that the person it represented
would not live out the year.[110] Telling ghost stories,
listening to Halloween-themed songs and watching horror films are common
fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series and
Halloween-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children)
are commonly aired on or before Halloween, while new horror films are
often released before Halloween to take advantage of the holiday. Haunted attractions Main article: Haunted attraction (simulated) Humorous tombstones in front of a house in California Humorous display window in Historic 25th Street, Ogden, Utah Haunted
attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare
patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses that may
include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides,[217] and the level of
sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. The
first recorded purpose-built haunted attraction was the Orton and
Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. This
attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered
by steam.[218][219] The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam
Collection. It was during the 1930s, about the same time as
trick-or-treating, that Halloween-themed haunted houses first began to
appear in America. It was in the late 1950s that haunted houses as a
major attraction began to appear, focusing first on California.
Sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary, the San Mateo
Haunted House opened in 1957. The San Bernardino Assistance League
Haunted House opened in 1958. Home haunts began appearing across the
country during 1962 and 1963. In 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House
opened, as well as the Children's Museum Haunted House in
Indianapolis.[220] The haunted house as an American cultural icon
can be attributed to the opening of The Haunted Mansion in Disneyland
on 12 August 1969.[221] Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own
Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm, which opened in
1973.[222] Evangelical Christians adopted a form of these attractions by
opening one of the first "hell houses" in 1972.[223] The first
Halloween haunted house run by a nonprofit organization was produced in
1970 by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in Clifton, Ohio. It was
cosponsored by WSAI, an AM radio station broadcasting out of Cincinnati,
Ohio. It was last produced in 1982.[224] Other Jaycees followed suit
with their own versions after the success of the Ohio house. The March
of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes" in
1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting
haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this
type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some March of Dimes
haunted houses have persisted until today.[225] On the evening of
11 May 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey, the Haunted Castle (Six
Flags Great Adventure) caught fire. As a result of the fire, eight
teenagers perished.[226] The backlash to the tragedy was a tightening of
regulations relating to safety, building codes and the frequency of
inspections of attractions nationwide. The smaller venues, especially
the nonprofit attractions, were unable to compete financially, and the
better funded commercial enterprises filled the vacuum.[227][228]
Facilities that were once able to avoid regulation because they were
considered to be temporary installations now had to adhere to the
stricter codes required of permanent attractions.[229][230][231] In
the late 1980s and early 1990s, theme parks entered the business
seriously. Six Flags Fright Fest began in 1986 and Universal Studios
Florida began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Knott's Scary Farm
experienced a surge in attendance in the 1990s as a result of America's
obsession with Halloween as a cultural event. Theme parks have played a
major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and
Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts
Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party events at its parks in Paris, Hong
Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States.[232] The theme park
haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.[233] Food Pumpkins for sale during Halloween On
All Hallows' Eve, many Western Christian denominations encourage
abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods
associated with this day.[234] A candy apple Because in the
Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple
harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America),
caramel apples or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by
rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by
rolling them in nuts. At one time, candy apples were commonly
given to trick-or-treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in
the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items
like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States.[235]
While there is evidence of such incidents,[236] relative to the degree
of reporting of such cases, actual cases involving malicious acts are
extremely rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless,
many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of
the mass media. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered
free X-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of
tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents
involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy.[237] One
custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often
nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish: báirín breac), which is a
light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin, and other charms are
placed before baking.[238] It is considered fortunate to be the lucky
one who finds it.[238] It has also been said that those who get a ring
will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the
tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany. A jack-o'-lantern Halloween cake with a witches hat List of foods associated with Halloween: Barmbrack (Ireland) Bonfire toffee (Great Britain) Candy apples/toffee apples (Great Britain and Ireland) Candy apples, candy corn, candy pumpkins (North America) Chocolate Monkey nuts (peanuts in their shells) (Ireland and Scotland) Caramel apples Caramel corn Colcannon (Ireland; see below) Halloween cake Sweets/candy Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc. Roasted pumpkin seeds Roasted sweet corn Soul cakes Pumpkin Pie Christian religious observances The Vigil of All Hallows' is being celebrated at an Episcopal Christian church on Hallowe'en On
Hallowe'en (All Hallows' Eve), in Poland, believers were once taught to
pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls
of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests in tiny
villages toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to
remember the dead on All Hallows' Eve.[239] In Ireland, and among
immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of
abstinence, keeping All Hallows' Eve as a meat-free day and serving
pancakes or colcannon instead.[240] In Mexico children make an altar to
invite the return of the spirits of dead children (angelitos).[241] The
Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil.
Worshippers prepared themselves for feasting on the following All
Saints' Day with prayers and fasting.[242] This church service is known
as the Vigil of All Hallows or the Vigil of All Saints;[243][244] an
initiative known as Night of Light seeks to further spread the Vigil of
All Hallows throughout Christendom.[245][246] After the service,
"suitable festivities and entertainments" often follow, as well as a
visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often
placed in preparation for All Hallows' Day.[247][248] In Finland,
because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows' Eve to light
votive candles there, they "are known as valomeri, or seas of
light".[249] Halloween Scripture Candy with gospel tract Today,
Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse. In the Anglican
Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions
associated with All Hallow's Eve.[250][251] Some of these practices
include praying, fasting and attending worship services.[1][2][3]
O LORD our God, increase, we pray thee, and multiply upon us the gifts
of thy grace: that we, who do prevent the glorious festival of all thy
Saints, may of thee be enabled joyfully to follow them in all virtuous
and godly living. Through Jesus Christ, Our Lord, who liveth and
reigneth with thee, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world
without end. Amen. —Collect of the Vigil of All Saints, The Anglican
Breviary[252] Votive candles in the Halloween section of Walmart Other
Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows' Eve as Reformation
Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation, alongside All
Hallow's Eve or independently from it.[253] This is because Martin
Luther is said to have nailed his Ninety-five Theses to All Saints'
Church in Wittenberg on All Hallows' Eve.[254] Often, "Harvest
Festivals" or "Reformation Festivals" are held on All Hallows' Eve, in
which children dress up as Bible characters or Reformers.[255] In
addition to distributing candy to children who are trick-or-treating on
Hallowe'en, many Christians also provide gospel tracts to them. One
organization, the American Tract Society, stated that around 3 million
gospel tracts are ordered from them alone for Hallowe'en
celebrations.[256] Others order Halloween-themed Scripture Candy to pass
out to children on this day.[257][258] Belizean children dressed up as Biblical figures and Christian saints Some
Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween
because they feel it trivializes – or celebrates – paganism, the occult,
or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with
their beliefs.[259] Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has
said, "if English and American children like to dress up as witches and
devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a
game, there is no harm in that."[260] In more recent years, the Roman
Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on
Halloween.[261] Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view
Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches
where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy
for free. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the
spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and
the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson
and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.[262] Christian
minister Sam Portaro wrote that Halloween is about using "humor and
ridicule to confront the power of death".[263] In the Roman
Catholic Church, Halloween's Christian connection is acknowledged, and
Halloween celebrations are common in many Catholic parochial schools in
the United States.[264][265] Many fundamentalist and evangelical
churches use "Hell houses" and comic-style tracts in order to make use
of Halloween's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism.[266] Others
consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian
faith due to its putative origins in the Festival of the Dead
celebration.[267] Indeed, even though Eastern Orthodox Christians
observe All Hallows' Day on the First Sunday after Pentecost, The
Eastern Orthodox Church recommends the observance of Vespers or a
Paraklesis on the Western observance of All Hallows' Eve, out of the
pastoral need to provide an alternative to popular celebrations.[268] Analogous celebrations and perspectives Judaism According
to Alfred J. Kolatch in the Second Jewish Book of Why, in Judaism,
Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates
Leviticus 18:3, which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs.
Many Jews observe Yizkor communally four times a year, which is vaguely
similar to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, in the sense
that prayers are said for both "martyrs and for one's own family".[269]
Nevertheless, many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from
its Christian origins.[270] Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said
that "There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not
celebrate Halloween" while Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde has argued
against Jews' observing the holiday.[271] Purim has sometimes been
compared to Halloween, in part due to some observants wearing costumes,
especially of Biblical figures described in the Purim narrative.[272] Islam Sheikh
Idris Palmer, author of A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding
Islam, has ruled that Muslims should not participate in Halloween,
stating that "participation in Halloween is worse than participation in
Christmas, Easter, ... it is more sinful than congratulating the
Christians for their prostration to the crucifix".[273] It has also been
ruled to be haram by the National Fatwa Council of Malaysia because of
its alleged pagan roots stating "Halloween is celebrated using a
humorous theme mixed with horror to entertain and resist the spirit of
death that influence humans".[274][275] Dar Al-Ifta Al-Missriyyah
disagrees provided the celebration is not referred to as an 'eid' and
that behaviour remains in line with Islamic principles.[276] Hinduism Hindus
remember the dead during the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which
Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony "to keep the souls of their
ancestors at rest". It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada,
usually in mid-September.[277] The celebration of the Hindu festival
Diwali sometimes conflicts with the date of Halloween; but some Hindus
choose to participate in the popular customs of Halloween.[278] Other
Hindus, such as Soumya Dasgupta, have opposed the celebration on the
grounds that Western holidays like Halloween have "begun to adversely
affect our indigenous festivals".[279] Neopaganism There is no
consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe
themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans. Some Neopagans do not observe
Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November,[280] some
neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe
both "the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween".
Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating
that it "trivializes Samhain",[281] and "avoid Halloween, because of the
interruptions from trick or treaters".[282] The Manitoban writes that
"Wiccans don't officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31
Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan's day planner.
Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain.
Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive
to Neopagan religions like Wicca. While the traditions of this holiday
originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans don't try to
historically replicate Samhain celebrations. Some traditional Samhain
rituals are still practised, but at its core, the period is treated as a
time to celebrate darkness and the dead – a possible reason why Samhain
can be confused with Halloween celebrations."[280] Geography Main article: Geography of Halloween Halloween display in Kobe, Japan The
traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries
that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs
include children dressing up in costume going "guising", holding
parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and
having firework displays.[172][283][284] In Brittany children would
play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to
frighten visitors.[285] Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th
century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the
United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event
is observed in other nations.[172] This larger North American influence,
particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places
such as Brazil, Ecuador, Chile,[286] Australia,[287] New Zealand,[288]
(most) continental Europe, Finland,[289] Japan, and other parts of East
Asia." (wikipedia.org) "Death is frequently imagined as a
personified force. In some mythologies, a character known as the Grim
Reaper (usually depicted as a berobed skeleton wielding a scythe) causes
the victim's death by coming to collect that person's soul. Other
beliefs hold that the Spectre of Death is only a psychopomp, a
benevolent figure who serves to gently sever the last ties between the
soul and the body, and to guide the deceased to the afterlife, without
having any control over when or how the victim dies. Death is most often
personified in male form, although in certain cultures Death is
perceived as female (for instance, Marzanna in Slavic mythology, or
Santa Muerte in Mexico). Death is also portrayed as one of the Four
Horsemen of the Apocalypse. By region Death from the Cary-Yale Tarot Deck (15th century) Americas La Calavera Catrina Latin America As
is the case in many Romance languages (including French, Portuguese,
Italian, and Romanian), the Spanish word for death, muerte, is a
feminine noun. As such, it is common in Spanish-speaking cultures to
personify death as a female figure. In Aztec mythology,
Mictecacihuatl is the "Queen of Mictlan" (the Aztec underworld), ruling
over the afterlife with her husband Mictlantecuhtli. Other epithets for
her include "Lady of the Dead," as her role includes keeping watch over
the bones of the dead. Mictecacihuatl was represented with a fleshless
body and with jaw agape to swallow the stars during the day. She
presided over the ancient festivals of the dead, which evolved from
Aztec traditions into the modern Day of the Dead after synthesis with
Spanish cultural traditions.[citation needed] There was also the
goddess of suicide, Ixtab. She was a minor goddess in the scale of Aztec
mythology. She was also known as The Hangwoman as she came to help
along those who had killed themselves. Our Lady of the Holy Death
(Santa Muerte) is a female deity or folk saint of Mexican folk
religion, whose popularity has been growing in Mexico and the United
States in recent years. Since the pre-Columbian era, Mexican culture has
maintained a certain reverence towards death, as seen in the widespread
commemoration of the Day of the Dead. La Calavera Catrina, a character
symbolizing death, is also an icon of the Mexican Day of the Dead. Mictlantecuhtli (left) depicted in Codex Borgia San
La Muerte (Saint Death) is a skeletal folk saint venerated in Paraguay,
northeast Argentina. As the result of internal migration in Argentina
since the 1960s, the veneration of San La Muerte has been extended to
Greater Buenos Aires and the national prison system as well. Saint Death
is depicted as a male skeleton figure usually holding a scythe.
Although the Catholic Church in Mexico has attacked the devotion of
Saint Death as a tradition that mixes paganism with Christianity and is
contrary to the Christian belief of Christ defeating death, many
devotees consider the veneration of San La Muerte as being part of their
Catholic faith. The rituals connected and powers ascribed to San La
Muerte are very similar to those of Santa Muerte; the resemblance
between their names, however, is coincidental. In Aztec mythology, Mictlāntēcutli, is the god of the dead, depicted as a skeleton or a person wearing a toothy skull.[1] In
Guatemala, San Pascualito is a skeletal folk saint venerated as "King
of the Graveyard." He is depicted as a skeletal figure with a scythe,
sometimes wearing a cape and crown. He is associated with death and the
curing of diseases. In the African-Brazilian religion Umbanda,
the orixá Omolu personifies sickness and death as well as healing. The
image of the death is also associated with Exu, lord of the crossroads,
who rules cemeteries and the hour of midnight. In Haitian Vodou,
the Gede are a family of spirits that embody death and fertility. The
most well-known of these spirits is Baron Samedi. Asia East Asia See also: Life replacement narratives Yama
was introduced to Chinese mythology through Buddhism. In Chinese, he is
known as King Yan (t 閻王, s 阎王, p Yánwáng) or Yanluo (t 閻羅王, s 阎罗王, p
Yánluówáng), ruling the ten gods of the underworld Diyu. He is normally
depicted wearing a Chinese judge's cap and traditional Chinese robes and
appears on most forms of hell money offered in ancestor worship. From
China, Yama spread to Japan as the Great King Enma (閻魔大王, Enma-Dai-Ō),
ruler of Jigoku (地獄); Korea as the Great King Yeomra (염라대왕), ruler of
Jiok (지옥); and Vietnam as Diêm La Vương, ruler of Địa Ngục or Âm Phủ. Separately,
in Korean mythology, death's principal figure is the "Netherworld
Emissary" Jeoseungsaja (저승사자, shortened to Saja (사자)). He is depicted as
a stern and ruthless bureaucrat in Yeomna's service. A psychopomp, he
escorts all – good or evil – from the land of the living to the
netherworld when the time comes.[2] One of the representative names is
Ganglim (강림), the Saja who guides the soul to the entrance of the
underworld. According to legend, he always carries Jeokpaeji (적패지), the
list with the names of the dead written on a red cloth. When he calls
the name on Jeokpaeji three times, the soul leaves the body and follows
him inevitably. The Kojiki relates that the Japanese goddess
Izanami was burnt to death giving birth to the fire god Hinokagutsuchi.
She then entered a realm of perpetual night called Yomi-no-Kuni. Her
husband Izanagi pursued her there but discovered his wife was no longer
as beautiful as before. After an argument, she promised she would take a
thousand lives every day, becoming a goddess of death, as well as
giving birth to the gods, Raijin and Fūjin, while dead. There are also
death gods called shinigami (死神), which are closer to the Western
tradition of the Grim Reaper; while common in modern Japanese arts and
fiction, they were essentially absent in traditional mythology. India Yama, the Hindu lord of death, presiding over his court in hell The
Sanskrit word for death is mrityu (cognate with Latin mors and
Lithuanian mirtis), which is often personified in Dharmic religions. In
Hindu scriptures, the lord of death is called King Yama (यम राज, Yama
Rāja). He is also known as the King of Karmic Justice (Dharmaraja) as
one's karma at death was considered to lead to a just rebirth. Yama
rides a black buffalo and carries a rope lasso to lead the soul back to
his home, called Naraka, pathalloka, or Yamaloka. There are many forms
of reapers, although some say there is only one who disguises himself as
a small child. His agents, the Yamadutas, carry souls back to Yamalok.
There, all the accounts of a person's good and bad deeds are stored and
maintained by Chitragupta. The balance of these deeds allows Yama to
decide where the soul should reside in its next life, following the
theory of reincarnation. Yama is also mentioned in the Mahabharata as a
great philosopher and devotee of the Supreme Brahman. Western Asia Main article: Mot (god) The
canaan of the 12th- and 13th-century BC Levant personified death as the
god Mot (lit. "Death"). He was considered a son of the king of the
gods, El. His contest with the storm god Baʿal forms part of the myth
cycle from the Ugaritic texts. The Phoenicians also worshipped death
under the name Mot and a version of Mot later became Maweth, the devil
or angel of death in Judaism.[3][4] Europe Baltic "Death" (Nāve; 1897) by Janis Rozentāls Latvians
named Death Veļu māte, but for Lithuanians it was Giltinė, deriving
from the word gelti ("to sting"). Giltinė was viewed as an old, ugly
woman with a long blue nose and a deadly poisonous tongue. The legend
tells that Giltinė was young, pretty, and communicative until she was
trapped in a coffin for seven years. Her sister was the goddess of life
and destiny, Laima, symbolizing the relationship between beginning and
end. Like the Scandinavians, Lithuanians and Latvians later began using Grim Reaper imagery for death. Celtic Bunworth Banshee, "Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland", by Thomas Crofton Croker, 1825 In
Breton folklore, a spectral figure called the Ankou (or Angau in Welsh)
portends death. Usually, the Ankou is the spirit of the last person
that died within the community and appears as a tall, haggard figure
with a wide hat and long white hair or a skeleton with a revolving head.
The Ankou drives a deathly wagon or cart with a creaking axle. The cart
or wagon is piled high with corpses and a stop at a cabin means instant
death for those inside.[5] Irish mythology features a similar
creature known as a dullahan, whose head would be tucked under their arm
(dullahans were not one, but an entire species). The head was said to
have large eyes and a smile that could reach the head's ears. The
dullahan would ride a black horse or a carriage pulled by black horses,
and stop at the house of someone about to die, and call their name, and
immediately the person would die. The dullahan did not like being
watched, and it was believed that if a dullahan knew someone was
watching them, they would lash that person's eyes with their whip, which
was made from a spine; or they would toss a basin of blood on the
person, which was a sign that the person was next to die. Gaelic
lore also involves a female spirit known as Banshee (Modern Irish
Gaelic: bean sí pron. banshee, literally fairy woman), who heralds the
death of a person by shrieking or keening. The banshee is often
described as wearing red or green, usually with long, disheveled hair.
She can appear in a variety of forms, typically that of an ugly,
frightful hag, but in some stories she chooses to appear young and
beautiful. Some tales recount that the creature was actually a ghost,
often of a specific murdered woman or a mother who died in childbirth.
When several banshees appeared at once, it was said to indicate the
death of someone great or holy. In Ireland and parts of Scotland, a
traditional part of mourning is the keening woman (bean chaointe), who
wails a lament – in Irish: Caoineadh, caoin meaning "to weep, to wail." In
Scottish folklore there was a belief that a black, dark green or white
dog known as a Cù Sìth took dying souls to the afterlife. Comparable
figures exist in Irish and Welsh stories. In Welsh Folklore, Gwyn
ap Nudd is the escort of the grave, the personification of Death and
Winter who leads the Wild Hunt to collect wayward souls and escort them
to the Otherworld, sometimes it is Maleagant, Arawn or Afallach in a
similar position. Hellenic Main article: Thanatos In Greek
mythology, Thanatos, the personification of death, is one of the
offspring of Nyx (Night). Like her, he is seldom portrayed directly. He
sometimes appears in art as a winged and bearded man, and occasionally
as a winged and beardless youth. When he appears together with his twin
brother, Hypnos, the god of sleep, Thanatos generally represents a
gentle death. Thanatos, led by Hermes psychopompos, takes the shade of
the deceased to the near shore of the river Styx, whence the ferryman
Charon, on payment of a small fee, conveys the shade to Hades, the realm
of the dead. Homer's Iliad 16.681, and the Euphronios Krater's
depiction of the same episode, have Apollo instruct the removal of the
heroic, semi-divine Sarpedon's body from the battlefield by Hypnos and
Thanatos, and conveyed thence to his homeland for proper funeral
rites.[citation needed] Among the other children of Nyx are Thanatos'
sisters, the Keres, blood-drinking, vengeant spirits of violent or
untimely death, portrayed as fanged and taloned, with bloody garments. Scandinavia Hel (1889) by Johannes Gehrts, pictured here with her hound Garmr In
Scandinavia, Norse mythology personified death in the shape of Hel, the
goddess of death and ruler over the realm of the same name, where she
received a portion of the dead.[6] In the times of the Black Plague,
Death would often be depicted as an old woman known by the name of
Pesta, meaning "plague hag", wearing a black hood. She would go into a
town carrying either a rake or a broom. If she brought the rake, some
people would survive the plague; if she brought the broom, however,
everyone would die.[7] Scandinavians later adopted the Grim
Reaper with a scythe and black robe. Today, Ingmar Bergman's 1957 film
The Seventh Seal features one of the world's most famous representations
of this personification of Death.[citation needed] Slavic Prague Astronomical Clock In
Poland, Death – Śmierć or kostuch – has an appearance similar to the
Grim Reaper, although its robe was traditionally white instead of black.
Because the word śmierć is feminine in gender, death is frequently
portrayed as a skeletal old woman, as depicted in 15th-century dialogue
"Rozmowa Mistrza Polikarpa ze Śmiercią" (Latin: "Dialogus inter Mortem
et Magistrum Polikarpum"). In Serbia and other South Slavic
countries, the Grim Reaper is well known as Smrt ("Death") or Kosač
("Reaper"). Slavic people found this very similar to the Devil and other
dark powers. One popular saying about death is: Smrt ne bira ni vreme,
ni mesto, ni godinu ("Death does not choose a time, place or year" –
which means death is destiny.)[original research?] Morana is a
Slavic goddess of winter time, death and rebirth. A figurine of the same
name is traditionally created at the end of winter/beginning of spring
and symbolically taken away from villages to be set in fire and/or
thrown into a river, that takes her away from the world of the living. In
the Czech Republic, the medieval Prague Astronomical Clock carries a
depiction of Death striking the hour. A version first appeared in
1490.[8][9] The Low Countries In the Netherlands, and to a
lesser extent in Belgium, the personification of Death is known as
Magere Hein ("Thin Hein") or Pietje de Dood ("Peter the Death").[10]
Historically, he was sometimes simply referred to as Hein or variations
thereof such as Heintje, Heintjeman and Oom Hendrik ("Uncle Hendrik").
Related archaic terms are Beenderman ("Bone-man"), Scherminkel (very
meager person, "skeleton") and Maaijeman ("mow-man", a reference to his
scythe).[11] The concept of Magere Hein predates Christianity,
but was Christianized and likely gained its modern name and features
(scythe, skeleton, black robe etc.) during the Middle Ages. The
designation "Meager" comes from its portrayal as a skeleton, which was
largely influenced by the Christian "Dance of Death" (Dutch: dodendans)
theme that was prominent in Europe during the late Middle Ages. "Hein"
was a Middle Dutch name originating as a short form of Heinric (see
Henry (given name)). Its use was possibly related to the comparable
German concept of "Freund Hein."[citation needed] Notably, many of the
names given to Death can also refer to the Devil; it is likely that fear
of death led to Hein's character being merged with that of
Satan.[11][12] In Belgium, this personification of Death is now
commonly called Pietje de Dood "Little Pete, the Death."[13] Like the
other Dutch names, it can also refer to the Devil.[14] Western Europe In
Western Europe, Death has commonly been personified as an animated
skeleton since the Middle Ages.[15] This character, which is often
depicted wielding a scythe, is said to collect the souls of the dying or
recently dead. In English and German culture, Death is typically
portrayed as male, but in French, Spanish, and Italian culture, it is
not uncommon for Death to be female.[16] In England, the
personified "Death" featured in medieval morality plays, later regularly
appearing in traditional folk songs.[17] The following is a verse of
"Death and the Lady" (Roud 1031) as sung by Henry Burstow in the
nineteenth century: Fair lady, throw those costly robes aside, No longer may you glory in your pride. Take leave of all sour carnal vain delight I'm come to summon you away this night.[17] In
the late 1800s, the character of Death became known as the Grim Reaper
in English literature. The earliest appearance of the name "Grim Reaper"
in English is in the 1847 book The Circle of Human Life:[18][19][20]
All know full well that life cannot last above seventy, or at the most
eighty years. If we reach that term without meeting the grim reaper with
his scythe, there or there about, meet him we surely shall. In Abrahamic religions See also: Destroying angel (Bible) This
section should specify the language of its non-English content, using
{{lang}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}}
for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code.
Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used. See why.
(January 2022) The "Angel of the Lord" smites 185,000 men in the
Assyrian camp (II Kings 19:35). When the Angel of Death passes through
to smite the Egyptian first-born, God prevents "the destroyer"
(shâchath) from entering houses with blood on the lintel and side posts
(Exodus 12:23). The "destroying angel" (mal'ak ha-mashḥit) rages among
the people in Jerusalem (II Sam. 24:16). In I Chronicles 21:15 the
"angel of the Lord" is seen by King David standing "between the earth
and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his hand stretched out over
Jerusalem." The biblical Book of Job (33:22) uses the general term
"destroyers" (memitim), which tradition has identified with "destroying
angels" (mal'ake Khabbalah), and Prov. 16:14 uses the term the "angels
of death" (mal'ake ha-mavet). The angel Azra'il is sometimes referred as
the Angel of Death as well.[21] Jewish tradition also refers to
Death as the Angel of Dark and Light, a name which stems from Talmudic
lore. There is also a reference to "Abaddon" (The Destroyer), an angel
who is known as the "Angel of the Abyss". In Talmudic lore, he is
characterized as archangel Michael.[22] In Judaism La mort du fossoyeur (Death of the gravedigger) by Carlos Schwabe In
Hebrew scriptures, Death (Maweth/Mavet(h)) is sometimes personified as a
devil or angel of death (e.g., Habakkuk 2:5; Job 18:13).[3] In both the
Book of Hosea and the Book of Jeremiah, Maweth/Mot is mentioned as a
deity to whom God can turn over Judah as punishment for worshiping other
gods.[23] The memitim are a type of angel from biblical lore associated
with the mediation over the lives of the dying. The name is derived
from the Hebrew word mĕmītǐm (מְמִיתִים – "executioners", "slayers",
"destroyers") and refers to angels that brought about the destruction of
those whom the guardian angels no longer protected.[24] While there may
be some debate among religious scholars regarding the exact nature of
the memitim, it is generally accepted that, as described in the Book of
Job 33:22, they are of some sort.[25] Form and functions According
to the Midrash, the Angel of Death was created by God on the first
day.[26] His dwelling is in heaven, whence he reaches earth in eight
flights, whereas Pestilence reaches it in one.[27] He has twelve
wings.[28] "Over all people have I surrendered thee the power," said God
to the Angel of Death, "only not over this one [i.e. Moses] which has
received freedom from death through the Law."[29] It is said of the
Angel of Death that he is full of eyes. In the hour of death, he stands
at the head of the departing one with a drawn sword, to which clings a
drop of gall. As soon as the dying man sees Death, he is seized with a
convulsion and opens his mouth, whereupon Death throws the drop into it.
This drop causes his death; he turns putrid, and his face becomes
yellow.[30] The expression "the taste of death" originated in the idea
that death was caused by a drop of gall.[31] The soul escapes
through the mouth, or, as is stated in another place, through the
throat; therefore, the Angel of Death stands at the head of the patient
(Adolf Jellinek, l.c. ii. 94, Midr. Teh. to Ps. xi.). When the soul
forsakes the body, its voice goes from one end of the world to the
other, but is not heard (Gen. R. vi. 7; Ex. R. v. 9; Pirḳe R. El.
xxxiv.). The drawn sword of the Angel of Death, mentioned by the
Chronicler (I. Chron. 21:15; comp. Job 15:22; Enoch 62:11), indicates
that the Angel of Death was figured as a warrior who kills off the
children of men. "Man, on the day of his death, falls down before the
Angel of Death like a beast before the slaughterer" (Grünhut,
"Liḳḳuṭim", v. 102a). R. Samuel's father (c. 200) said: "The Angel of
Death said to me, 'Only for the sake of the honor of mankind do I not
tear off their necks as is done to slaughtered beasts'" ('Ab. Zarah
20b). In later representations, the knife sometimes replaces the sword,
and reference is also made to the cord of the Angel of Death, which
indicates death by throttling. Moses says to God: "I fear the cord of
the Angel of Death" (Grünhut, l.c. v. 103a et seq.). Of the four Jewish
methods of execution, three are named in connection with the Angel of
Death: Burning (by pouring hot lead down the victim's throat),
slaughtering (by beheading), and throttling. The Angel of Death
administers the particular punishment that God has ordained for the
commission of sin. A peculiar mantle ("idra" – according to Levy,
"Neuhebr. Wörterb." i. 32, a sword) belongs to the equipment of the
Angel of Death (Eccl. R. iv. 7). The Angel of Death takes on the
particular form which will best serve his purpose; e.g., he appears to a
scholar in the form of a beggar imploring pity (the beggar should
receive Tzedakah)(M. Ḳ. 28a). "When pestilence rages in the town, walk
not in the middle of the street, because the Angel of Death [i.e.,
pestilence] strides there; if peace reigns in the town, walk not on the
edges of the road. When pestilence rages in the town, go not alone to
the synagogue, because there the Angel of Death stores his tools. If the
dogs howl, the Angel of Death has entered the city; if they make sport,
the prophet Elijah has come" (B. Ḳ. 60b). The "destroyer" (saṭan
ha-mashḥit) in the daily prayer is the Angel of Death (Ber. 16b). Midr.
Ma'ase Torah (compare Jellinek, "B. H." ii. 98) says: "There are six
Angels of Death: Gabriel over kings; Ḳapẓiel over youths; Mashbir over
animals; Mashḥit over children; Af and Ḥemah over man and beast." Samael
is considered in Talmudic texts to be a member of the heavenly host
with often grim and destructive duties. One of Samael's greatest roles
in Jewish lore is that of the main angel of death and the head of
satans.[32] Scholars and the Angel of Death The Angel of Death, sculpture of a funeral gondola, Venice. Photo by Paolo Monti, 1951. Talmud
teachers of the 4th century associate quite familiarly with him. When
he appeared to one on the street, the teacher reproached him with
rushing upon him as upon a beast, whereupon the angel called upon him at
his house. To another, he granted a respite of thirty days, that he
might put his knowledge in order before entering the next world. To a
third, he had no access, because he could not interrupt the study of the
Talmud. To a fourth, he showed a rod of fire, whereby he is recognized
as the Angel of Death (M. K. 28a). He often entered the house of Bibi
and conversed with him (Ḥag. 4b). Often, he resorts to strategy in order
to interrupt and seize his victim (B. M. 86a; Mak. 10a). The
death of Joshua ben Levi in particular is surrounded with a web of
fable. When the time came for him to die and the Angel of Death appeared
to him, he demanded to be shown his place in paradise. When the angel
had consented to this, he demanded the angel's knife, that the angel
might not frighten him by the way. This request also was granted him,
and Joshua sprang with the knife over the wall of paradise; the angel,
who is not allowed to enter paradise, caught hold of the end of his
garment. Joshua swore that he would not come out, and God declared that
he should not leave paradise unless he had ever absolved himself of an
oath; he had never absolved himself of an oath so he was allowed to
remain. The Angel of Death then demanded back his knife, but Joshua
refused. At this point, a heavenly voice (bat ḳol) rang out: "Give him
back the knife, because the children of men have need of it will bring
death." Hesitant, Joshua Ben Levi gives back the knife in exchange for
the Angel of Death's name. To never forget the name, he carved Troke
into his arm, the Angel of Death's chosen name. When the knife was
returned to the Angel, Joshua's carving of the name faded, and he
forgot. (Ket. 77b; Jellinek, l.c. ii. 48–51; Bacher, l.c. i. 192 et
seq.). Rabbinic views The Rabbis found the Angel of Death
mentioned in Psalm 89:48, where the Targum translates: "There is no man
who lives and, seeing the Angel of Death, can deliver his soul from his
hand." Eccl. 8:4 is thus explained in Midrash Rabbah to the passage:
"One may not escape the Angel of Death, nor say to him, 'Wait until I
put my affairs in order,' or 'There is my son, my slave: take him in my
stead.'" Where the Angel of Death appears, there is no remedy, but his
name (Talmud, Ned. 49a; Hul. 7b). If one who has sinned has confessed
his fault, the Angel of Death may not touch him (Midrash Tanhuma, ed.
Buber, 139). God protects from the Angel of Death (Midrash Genesis
Rabbah lxviii.). By acts of benevolence, the anger of the Angel
of Death is overcome; when one fails to perform such acts the Angel of
Death will make his appearance (Derek Ereẓ Zuṭa, viii.). The Angel of
Death receives his orders from God (Ber. 62b). As soon as he has
received permission to destroy, however, he makes no distinction between
good and bad (B. Ḳ. 60a). In the city of Luz, the Angel of Death has no
power, and, when the aged inhabitants are ready to die, they go outside
the city (Soṭah 46b; compare Sanh. 97a). A legend to the same effect
existed in Ireland in the Middle Ages (Jew. Quart. Rev. vi. 336). In Christianity Gustave Doré Death on the Pale Horse (1865) – The fourth Horseman of the Apocalypse Death is one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse portrayed in the Book of Revelation, in Revelation 6:7–8.[33]
And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was
Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over
the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and
with death, and with the beasts of the earth. — Revelation 6:8, King James Version He
is also known as the Pale Horseman whose name is Thanatos, the same as
that of the ancient Greek personification of death, and the only one of
the horsemen to be named.[citation needed] Paul addresses a personified death in 1 Corinthians 15:55. "O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory?" — 1 Corinthians 15:55, New King James Version In some versions, both arms of this verse are addressed to death.[34] The Christian scriptures contain the first known depiction of Abaddon as an individual entity instead of a place. A king, the angel of the bottomless pit; whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon, and in Greek Apollyon; in Latin Exterminans. — Revelation 9:11, Douay–Rheims Bible In Hebrews 2:14 the devil "holds the power of death."[35]
Since therefore the children share in flesh and blood, he himself
likewise partook of the same things, that through death he might destroy
the one who has the power of death, that is, the devil, and deliver all
those who through fear of death were subject to lifelong slavery. — Hebrews 2:14–15, English Standard Version Conversely,
the early Christian writer Origen believed the destroying angel of
Exodus 12:23 to be Satan.[36] The Grim Reaper, is stated to be destroyed
by the Lake of Fire that burns with sulfur. Death and Hell were thrown into the Lake of Fire. This is the second death. — Revelation 20:14, King James Version The last enemy to be destroyed is death. — 1 Corinthians 15:26, New International Version In Islam In
Islam, Archangel Azrael is the Malak al-Maut (angel of death). He and
his many subordinates pull the souls out of the bodies, and guide them
through the journey of the afterlife. Their appearance depends on the
person's deed and actions, with those that did good seeing a beautiful
being, and those that did wrong seeing a horrific monster. Islamic
tradition discusses elaborately as to what exactly happens before,
during, and after the death. The angel of death appears to the dying to
take out their souls. The sinners' souls are extracted in a most painful
way while the righteous are treated easily.[37] After the burial, two
angels – Munkar and Nakir – come to question the dead in order to test
their faith. The righteous believers answer correctly and live in peace
and comfort while the sinners and disbelievers fail and punishments
ensue.[37][38] The time period or stage between death and resurrection
is called barzakh (the interregnum).[37] Death is a significant
event in Islamic life and theology. It is seen not as the termination of
life, rather the continuation of life in another form. In Islamic
belief, God has made this worldly life as a test and a preparation
ground for the afterlife; and with death, this worldly life comes to an
end.[39] Thus, every person has only one chance to prepare themselves
for the life to come where God will resurrect and judge every individual
and will entitle them to rewards or punishment, based on their good or
bad deeds.[39][40] And death is seen as the gateway to and beginning of
the afterlife. In Islamic belief, death is predetermined by God, and the
exact time of a person's death is known only to God. Media Songs "Death Don't Have No Mercy" Main article: Death Don't Have No Mercy The
1960 gospel blues song "Death Don't Have No Mercy", composed and first
recorded by Blind Gary Davis, portrays death as an inevitable and
periodic visitor.[41] According to the musicologist David Malvinni, it
"presents a terrifying personification of the instant, sudden
possibility [of] death at any moment that could have come from the
medieval era's confrontation with the plague".[42] "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" Main article: (Don't Fear) The Reaper The
1976 Blue Öyster Cult song "(Don't Fear) The Reaper", recorded for
their album Agents of Fortune, alludes to the Grim Reaper in the title
and lyrics. The song encourages the audience not to fear death, but
rather to think of it as something that immortalizes love.[43] "Creeping Death" Main article: Creeping Death The
1984 thrash metal song "Creeping Death", recorded by Metallica,
references the angel of death, among other religious symbols. It is
described by the writer Tom King as "a tale of righteous Biblical rage
and devastation straight out of the Book of Revelations".[44] Books Death (Death with Interruptions or Death at Intervals) Main article: Death with Interruptions Nobel
laureate José Saramago's novel features an anthropomorphised death as
its main character, who insists that her name be written lowercase. She
is depicted as a skeleton who can shapeshift and be omnipresent and has a
scythe, though she doesn't always carry it. Her jurisdiction is limited
to the imaginary country where the story happens and to the human
species. It is implied that other deaths with jurisdiction over
different life forms and territories exist, as well as an overarching
death and/or god. The book deals with how society relates to death, both
as a phenomenon and a character, and likewise how death relates to the
people she is meant to kill and with loneliness and love. Death (Discworld) Main article: Death (Discworld) Death
is a fictional character in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, and
depicted as one of many Deaths. His jurisdiction is specifically the
Discworld itself; he is only a part, or minion, of Azrael, the universal
Death. Death has appeared in every Discworld novel, with the exception
of The Wee Free Men and Snuff. Mort, published in 1987, is the first
time Death appears as a leading character.[45] Death (The Book Thief) Main article: The Book Thief Death
is the narrator of Markus Zusak's 2005 novel The Book Thief. He is a
collector of deceased souls in the story. He tells the coming of age
story about a girl he witnessed living in Nazi Germany and surviving
World War II.[46] Death (Harry Potter) Main article: The Tales of Beedle the Bard Death
appears in "The Tale of Three Brothers" in J.K. Rowling's The Tales of
Beedle the Bard, a collection of fairytales featured in her Harry Potter
series. Three brothers avoid Death and Death, furious at being avoided,
offers the brothers gifts. Two of these gifts, the Elder Wand and the
Resurrection Stone lead to the first two brothers' deaths. The third
brother, gifted with the Invisibility Cloak avoids Death until old age,
where he then goes with Death like an old friend. These gifts became the
Deathly Hallows.[47] Death (Incarnations of Immortality) Main article: On a Pale Horse Death
is a held office in Piers Anthony's 1983 novel On a Pale Horse.[48] The
character Zane becomes Death after a suicide attempt that ends up
killing the previous Death. He is taught by his fellow Incarnations Time
and Fate and must defeat the Incarnation of Evil, Satan. He is given
several items to aid him on his job, including a watch to stop local
time, jewels to measure how much good and evil is in a person for
judgment, and his pale horse Mortis, who often takes the form of a pale
car. Zane as Death appears in Anthony's following novels, notably
Bearing an Hourglass. Charlie Asher (A Dirty Job) Main article: A Dirty Job Death
is a career in Christopher Moore's A Dirty Job.[49] Charlie Asher is
chosen to be a "Death Merchant" for retrieving souls and protect them
from dark forces while managing his story and raising his newborn
daughter. Comics Death (DC Comics) Main article: Death (DC Comics) Death
first appeared in The Sandman vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created
by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg.[50] She is both an embodiment of
death and a psychopomp in The Sandman Universe, and depicted as a down
to earth, perky, and nurturing figure. Death is the second born of The
Endless and she states "When the last living thing dies, my job will be
finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights and
lock the universe behind me when I leave."[51] Death also appears
briefly in Fables #11 (May 2003) titled "Bag O' Bones", where Jack
Horner traps Death in a magical bag that never gets full.[52] There has
been no indication as to whether Fables has any connection to the
Sandman universe. Death (Marvel Comics) Main article: Death (Marvel Comics) The
character first appeared in Captain Marvel #26 (Jun. 1973) and was
created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin. Death is an abstract entity,
the embodiment of the end of life in the Marvel Universe, and resides
inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death.[53] The character
can change appearance at will shown in a storyline of Captain Marvel
where Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes
determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life. However,
she is commonly seen in a relationship with Deadpool. Lady MacDeath (Bug-a-Boo) Main article: Bug-a-Booo Lady
MacDeath is a Grim Reaper, the personification of Death who is
responsible of going after all people whose time to die has come,
although unlike a typical Grim Reaper, her body is not pictured as made
of bones. She uses her sickle to kill people, by hitting them in the
head, and then she takes their souls to the purgatory, for them to be
judged and sent whether to hell or heaven (sometimes after much
bureaucracy). She always carries a list with the name of the people she
must kill on the day. Most of her stories feature a pursuit, sometimes
punctuated with struggles faced every day by normal people. Maurício de
Souza says that the purpose of creating her is "taking death less
seriously, while it doesn't come to us". Film This section
needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2021) (Learn how
and when to remove this template message) Death Takes a Holiday (1934) Main article: Death Takes a Holiday After
years of questioning why people fear him, Death takes on human form for
three days so that he can mingle among mortals and find an answer. He
finds a host in Duke Lambert after revealing himself and his intentions
to the Duke, and takes up temporary residence in the Duke's villa.
However, events soon spiral out of control as Death falls in love with
the beautiful young Grazia. As he does so, Duke Lambert, the father of
Grazia's mortal lover Corrado, begs him to give Grazia up and leave her
among the living. Death must decide whether to seek his own happiness,
or sacrifice it so that Grazia may live. The 1998 American film
Meet Joe Black is loosely based on the 1934 film. While on Earth, Death,
living under the name Joe Black, enlists the wealthy Bill Parrish to be
his guide to mortal life, and in exchange guarantees that Bill will not
die as long as he serves as "Joe's" guide. Joe falls in love with
Bill's youngest daughter, Susan, a resident in internal medicine, and
learns the meaning of both friendship and love. The Seventh Seal (1957) Main article: The Seventh Seal Death
is one of the main characters in 1957 Swedish historical fantasy film
The Seventh Seal. The film tells the story of a knight encountering
Death, whom he challenges to a chess match, believing he can survive as
long as the game continues.[54] These scenes are parodied in the
1991 comedy film Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, in which the title
characters repeatedly beat Death playing a variety of family board games
such as Battleship and Twister. Death goes on to accompany Bill and Ted
for the remainder of the film as a major supporting character.[55] The
scene from "The Seventh Seal" is also parodied in a one-act play by
Woody Allen called "Death," in which the personification of death agrees
to play gin rummy and loses badly, altering his plans to "take" his
opponent. The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988) Main article: The Adventures of Baron Munchausen Throughout
the film, Munchausen is pursued by Death, a skeletal angel with raven's
wings, carrying a scythe in one hand and an hourglass in the other. At
the end, Death, in the form of a grim physician, extracts Munchausen's
glowing life force, and Munchausen is given a lavish funeral before
boldly claiming it was "one of the many times I faced Death." Final Destination film series (2000–2011) Main article: Final Destination In
each of the Final Destination films, one of the protagonists
experiences a premonition of an impending disaster. When these visions
come true, the protagonists manage to avoid harm, though many innocent
people are killed. Their escapes alter the design intended by Death,
which – while never portrayed as a physical entity – is described as an
omniscient supernatural force. In each film, the characters learn that
they can never truly escape from death, and that they are each doomed to
be killed one by one. Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio (2022) Main article: Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio In
this film, Death (voiced by Tilda Swinton) resides in the afterlife.
She is the sister of the Wood Sprite and is depicted as a Chimera. Puss in Boots: The Last Wish (2022) Main article: Puss in Boots: The Last Wish Throughout
the events of the film, the titular Puss in Boots is pursued by the
terrifying black-cloaked Wolf (voiced by Wagner Moura), who wields twin
sickles and announces his foreboding presence with haunting whistling.
His sighting consistently evokes terror in the cat, following their
first meeting in which Puss lost his sword to him and was wounded by a
blade for the first time. Eventually, Wolf confronts Puss once again and
reveals himself as the personification of Death. He states his disgust
and anger at Puss's lack of respect for the concept of death and lack of
value placed on his previous eight lives, as well as his intent to kill
Puss once and for all. However, though he manages to partially disarm
Death during their final duel, Puss acknowledges that he knows that he
can never truly defeat him. Though Death is initially frustrated, he
appreciates Puss's growth in character and tells him to live his last
life well and departs as a new respect forged between them. Television In
1987, the Australian government produced a controversial commercial
featuring the Grim Reaper in order to raise public awareness about the
danger of HIV/AIDS.[56] The Grim Reaper is one of the main
characters of the 2000s Cartoon Network series The Grim Adventures of
Billy & Mandy, where he is usually referred to as Grim and is voiced
by Greg Eagles with a pronounced Jamaican accent. The Grim
Reaper ("Death") appears in some early episodes of Family Guy as a
character voiced by Norm Macdonald in the first appearance and by Adam
Carolla in later appearances. The Showtime television series Dead
Like Me features a small team of characters taking the role of the
"grim reaper", removing the souls of people just prior to their imminent
death. Unlike most depictions of Death, the show depicted "grim reaper"
as a job title, held by multiple people at once. In the British
children's sketch television show Horrible Histories, Death (portrayed
by Simon Farnaby) is a reoccurring character who appears the segment
"Stupid Deaths" and later in its sixth series "Chatty Deaths". Theatre Elisabeth Viennese musical (1992) Main article: Elisabeth (musical) The
personification of Death or the Grim Reaper is the leading male role in
the 1992 Viennese musical, depicting the titular Empress of
Austria-Hungary's fictionalised life and her entanglements and obsession
with Death.[57] Portrayals of Death varies between productions from
androgynous to masculine, dressed at various times in all black or all
white.[58] Video games The personification of Death appears
many times in many different games, especially Castlevania and The Sims.
Nearly all iterations of a "Death" or "Grim Reaper" character feature
most of the same characteristics seen in other media and pop culture: a
skeleton wearing a cloak and wielding a scythe. Darksiders II has Death
as the player character. League of Legends focuses on the concept
of Kindred, a personification of death consisting of a duo of lamb and
wolf. " (wikipedia.org) "Rest in peace (R.I.P.),[1] a phrase from
the Latin requiescat in pace (Ecclesiastical Latin: [rekwiˈeskat in
ˈpatʃe]), is sometimes used in traditional Christian services and
prayers, such as in the Catholic,[2] Lutheran,[3] Anglican, and
Methodist[4] denominations, to wish the soul of a decedent eternal rest
and peace. It became ubiquitous on headstones in the 18th century, and is widely used today when mentioning someone's death. Description The
phrase dormit in pace (English: "[he] sleeps in peace") was found in
the catacombs of the early Christians and indicated that "they died in
the peace of the Church, that is, united in Christ."[5][6][7] The
abbreviation R.I.P., meaning Requiescat in pace, "Rest in peace",
continues to be engraved on the gravestones of Christians,[8] especially
in the Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican denominations.[9] In the Tridentine Requiem Mass of the Catholic Church the phrase appears several times.[10] Other
variations include "Requiescat in pace et in amore" for "[May he/she]
rest in peace and love", and "In pace requiescat et in amore". The word
order is variable because Latin syntactical relationships are indicated
by the inflexional endings, not by word order. If "Rest in peace" is
used in an imperative mood, it would be "Requiesce in pace" (acronym
R.I.P.) in the second person singular, or "Requiescite in pace" in the
second person plural.[11] In the common phrase "Requiescat in pace" the
"-at" ending is appropriate because the verb is a third-person singular
present active subjunctive used in a hortative sense: "[May he/she] rest
in peace." History A 7th-century gravestone from Narbonne
beginning with requiescunt in pace. It has been interpreted variously as
an "inscription relating to the Jews of France",[12] or as a Jewish
inscription.[13] The phrase was first found on tombstones some
time before the fifth century.[14][15][16] It became ubiquitous on the
tombs of Christians in the 18th century,[9] and for High Church
Anglicans, Methodists,[17] as well as Roman Catholics in particular, it
was a prayerful request that their soul should find peace in the
afterlife.[8] When the phrase became conventional, the absence of a
reference to the soul led people to suppose that it was the physical
body that was enjoined to lie peacefully in the grave.[18] This is
associated with the Christian doctrine of the particular judgment; that
is, that the soul is parted from the body upon death, but that the soul
and body will be reunited on Judgment Day.[19] Use in various religions Irish Protestantism In
2017, members of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland called on
Protestants to stop using the phrase "RIP" or "Rest in Peace".[20]
Wallace Thompson, the secretary of the Evangelical Protestant Society,
said on a BBC Radio Ulster programme that he would encourage Protestants
to refrain from using the term "RIP".[21] Thompson said that he regards
"RIP" as a prayer for the dead, which he believes contradicts biblical
doctrine.[22] In the same radio programme, Presbyterian Ken Newell
disagreed that people are praying for the dead when they use the phrase. Judaism Main article: Honorifics for the dead in Judaism The
expression "rest in peace" is "not commonly used in Jewish contexts",
though some commentators say that it is "consistent with Jewish
practice".[23] The traditional Hebrew expression עליו השלום, literally
'may peace be upon him', is sometimes rendered in English as 'may he
rest in peace'.[24][25] On the other hand, some Jews object to using the
phrase for Jews, considering it to reflect a Christian perspective."
(wikipedia.org)........................ "The
Danse Macabre (/dɑːns məˈkɑːb(rə)/; French pronunciation: [dɑ̃s
ma.kabʁ]) (from the French language), also called the Dance of Death, is
an artistic genre of allegory of the Late Middle Ages on the
universality of death. The Danse Macabre consists of the dead, or
a personification of death, summoning representatives from all walks of
life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king,
child, and labourer. The effect is both frivolous and terrifying,
beseeching its audience to react emotionally. It was produced as memento
mori, to remind people of the fragility of their lives and how vain are
the glories of earthly life.[1] Its origins are postulated from
illustrated sermon texts; the earliest recorded visual scheme was a
now-lost mural at Holy Innocents' Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to
1425. Background Historian Francis Rapp (1926–2020) writes
that "Christians were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on
his mother's knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron
saints reassured them by their presence. But, all the while, the danse
macabre urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things."[2] This
Danse Macabre was enacted at village pageants and at court masques,
with people "dressing up as corpses from various strata of society", and
may have been the origin of costumes worn during
Allhallowtide.[3][4][5][6] In her thesis, The Black Death and its
Effect on 14th and 15th Century Art, Anna Louise Des Ormeaux describes
the effect of the Black Death on art, mentioning the Danse Macabre as
she does so: Some plague art contains gruesome imagery that
was directly influenced by the mortality of the plague or by the
medieval fascination with the macabre and awareness of death that were
augmented by the plague. Some plague art documents psychosocial
responses to the fear that plague aroused in its victims. Other plague
art is of a subject that directly responds to people's reliance on
religion to give them hope.[7] The cultural impact of mass
outbreaks of disease, of pandemics, are not fleeting or temporary. The
effect can endure past the initial stages of outbreak, in its deep
etching upon the culture and society. This can be seen in the artworks
and motifs of Danse Macabre as people attempted to cope with the death
surrounding them. Paintings Charnel house at Holy Innocents' Cemetery, Paris, with mural of a Danse Macabre (1424–25) The
earliest recorded visual example is the lost mural on the South wall of
the Cemetery of the Holy Innocents in Paris. It was painted in 1424–25
during the regency of John, Duke of Bedford (1389–1435). It features an
emphatic inclusion of a dead crowned king at a time when France did not
have a crowned king. The mural may well have had a political subtext.[8] There
were also painted schemes in Basel (the earliest dating from c. 1440); a
series of paintings on canvas by Bernt Notke (1440–1509) in Lübeck
(1463); the initial fragment of the original Bernt Notke painting Danse
Macabre (accomplished at the end of the 15th century) in the St
Nicholas' Church, Tallinn, Estonia; the painting at the back wall of the
chapel of Sv. Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram (1474),
painted by Vincent of Kastav; the painting in the Holy Trinity Church
of Hrastovlje, Istria by John of Kastav (1490). Bernt Notke: Surmatants (Totentanz) from St. Nicholas' Church, Tallinn, end of 15th century (today in the Art Museum of Estonia) An abbot and a bailiff, dancing the Dance Macabre, miniature from a 1486 book, printed by Guy Marchant in Paris A
notable example was painted on the cemetery walls of the Dominican
Abbey, in Bern, by Niklaus Manuel Deutsch (1484–1530) in 1516/7. This
work of art was destroyed when the wall was torn down in 1660, but a
1649 copy by Albrecht Kauw (1621–1681) is extant. There was also a Dance
of Death painted around 1430 and displayed on the walls of Pardon
Churchyard at Old St Paul's Cathedral, London, with texts by John
Lydgate (1370–1451) known as the 'Dance of (St) Poulys', which was
destroyed in 1549. The deathly horrors of the 14th century such
as recurring famines, the Hundred Years' War in France, and, most of
all, the Black Death, were culturally assimilated throughout Europe. The
omnipresent possibility of sudden and painful death increased the
religious desire for penance, but it also evoked a hysterical desire for
amusement while still possible; a last dance as cold comfort. The Danse
Macabre combines both desires: in many ways similar to the medieval
mystery plays, the dance-with-death allegory was originally a didactic
dialogue poem to remind people of the inevitability of death and to
advise them strongly to be prepared at all times for death (see memento
mori and Ars moriendi). Short verse dialogues between Death and
each of its victims, which could have been performed as plays, can be
found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany and in Spain
(where it was known as the Totentanz and la Danza de la Muerte,
respectively). The French term Danse Macabre may derive from the
Latin Chorea Machabæorum, literally "dance of the Maccabees."[9][10] In 2
Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a
mother and her seven sons is described and was a well-known medieval
subject. It is possible that the Maccabean Martyrs were commemorated in
some early French plays, or that people just associated the book's vivid
descriptions of the martyrdom with the interaction between Death and
its prey. An alternative explanation is that the term entered
France via Spain, the Arabic: مقابر, maqabir (pl., "cemeteries") being
the root of the word. Both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were
ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people (who were the
overwhelming majority) could understand. Mural paintings Frescoes
and murals dealing with death had a long tradition, and were
widespread. For example, the legend of the Three Living and the Three
Dead. On a ride or hunt, three young gentlemen meet three cadavers
(sometimes described as their ancestors) who warn them, Quod fuimus,
estis; quod sumus, vos eritis ("What we were, you are; what we are, you
will be"). Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century
onwards have survived (for instance, in the Hospital Church of Wismar or
the residential Longthorpe Tower outside Peterborough). Since they
showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds,
those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new
genre. A Danse Macabre painting may show a round dance headed by
Death or, more usually, a chain of alternating dead and live dancers.
From the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy (usually pope and
emperor) descending to its lowest (beggar, peasant, and child), each
mortal's hand is taken by an animated skeleton or cadaver. The famous
Totentanz by Bernt Notke in St. Mary's Church, Lübeck (destroyed during
the Allied bombing of Lübeck in World War II), presented the dead
dancers as very lively and agile, making the impression that they were
actually dancing, whereas their living dancing partners looked clumsy
and passive. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these
paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer,
so that a sociocritical element is subtly inherent to the whole genre.
The Totentanz of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his
tiara is being led into Hell by Death. A mural depicting a chain of alternating living and dead dancers Lübecker Totentanz by Bernt Notke (around 1463, destroyed in a bombing raid in 1942) Usually,
a short dialogue is attached to each pair of dancers, in which Death is
summoning him (or, more rarely, her) to dance and the summoned is
moaning about impending death. In the first printed Totentanz textbook
(Anon.: Vierzeiliger oberdeutscher Totentanz, Heidelberger Blockbuch,
c. 1455/58), Death addresses, for example, the emperor: Emperor, your sword won't help you out Sceptre and crown are worthless here I've taken you by the hand For you must come to my dance At the lower end of the Totentanz, Death calls, for example, the peasant to dance, who answers: I had to work very much and very hard The sweat was running down my skin I'd like to escape death nonetheless But here I won't have any luck Various examples of Danse Macabre in Slovenia and Croatia below:
The fresco at the back wall of the Church of St. Mary of the Rocks in
the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav, Croatia
The fresco at the back wall of the Church of St. Mary of the Rocks in
the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav, Croatia John of Kastav: Detail of the Dance Macabre fresco (1490) in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje, Slovenia John of Kastav: Detail of the Dance Macabre fresco (1490) in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje, Slovenia Dance of Death (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia) Dance of Death (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia) The famous Danse Macabre in Hrastovlje in the Holy Trinity Church The famous Danse Macabre in Hrastovlje in the Holy Trinity Church Danse Macabre in St Maria in Bienno, 16th century Danse Macabre in St Maria in Bienno, 16th century Hans Holbein's woodcuts The Dance of Death 3. Holbein death Abbot.300dpi.jpg Example of a woodcut from the book.[The Abbott] Author Hans Holbein the Younger Original title Danse Macabre Country England Genre Allegory, satire, woodcuts and death. Publication date 1538 Renowned
for his Dance of Death series, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the
Younger (1497–1543) were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel. They were
cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider (block cutter) Hans
Lützelburger. William Ivins (quoting W. J. Linton) writes of Lützelburger's work wrote: "'Nothing
indeed, by knife or by graver, is of higher quality than this man's
doing.' For by common acclaim the originals are technically the most
marvelous woodcuts ever made."[11] These woodcuts soon appeared
in proofs with titles in German. The first book edition, containing
forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in
1538. The popularity of the work, and the currency of its message, are
underscored by the fact that there were eleven editions before 1562, and
over the sixteenth century perhaps as many as a hundred unauthorized
editions and imitations.[12] Ten further designs were added in later
editions. The Dance of Death (1523–26) refashions the
late-medieval allegory of the Danse Macabre as a reformist satire, and
one can see the beginnings of a gradual shift from traditional to
reformed Christianity.[13] That shift had many permutations however, and
in a study Natalie Zemon Davis has shown that the contemporary
reception and afterlife of Holbein's designs lent themselves to neither
purely Catholic or Protestant doctrine, but could be outfitted with
different surrounding prefaces and sermons as printers and writers of
different political and religious leanings took them up. Most
importantly, "The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the
main attractions […] Both Catholics and Protestants wished, through the
pictures, to turn men's thoughts to a Christian preparation for
death.".[14] The 1538 edition which contained Latin quotations
from the Bible above Holbein's designs, and a French quatrain below
composed by Gilles Corrozet (1510–1568) actually did not credit Holbein
as the artist. It bore the title: Les simulachres & / HISTORIEES
FACES / DE LA MORT, AUTANT ELE/gammēt pourtraictes, que
artifi/ciellement imaginées. / A Lyon. / Soubz l'escu de COLOIGNE. /
M.D. XXXVIII. ("Images and Illustrated facets of Death, as elegantly
depicted as they are artfully conceived.")[15] These images and workings
of death as captured in the phrase "histories faces" of the title "are
the particular exemplification of the way death works, the individual
scenes in which the lessons of mortality are brought home to people of
every station."[16] from Holbein's Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte (In Lyone Appresso Giovan Frellone, 1549) The Abbess from Holbein's Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte, 1549 In
his preface to the work Jean de Vauzèle, the Prior of Montrosier,
addresses Jehanne de Tourzelle, the Abbess of the Convent at St. Peter
at Lyons, and names Holbein's attempts to capture the ever-present, but
never directly seen, abstract images of death "simulachres." He writes:
"[…] simulachres les dis ie vrayement, pour ce que simulachre vient de
simuler, & faindre ce que n'est point." ("Simulachres they are most
correctly called, for simulachre derives from the verb to simulate and
to feign that which is not really there.") He next employs a trope from
the memento mori (remember we all must die) tradition and a metaphor
from printing which well captures the undertakings of Death, the artist,
and the printed book before us in which these simulachres of death
barge in on the living: "Et pourtant qu'on n'a peu trouver chose plus
approchante a la similitude de Mort, que la personne morte, on d'icelle
effigie simulachres, & faces de Mort, pour en nos pensees imprimer
la memoire de Mort plus au vis, que ne pourroient toutes les rhetoriques
descriptiones de orateurs."[17] ("And yet we cannot discover any one
thing more near the likeness of Death than the dead themselves, whence
come these simulated effigies and images of Death's affairs, which
imprint the memory of Death with more force than all the rhetorical
descriptions of the orators ever could."). The Plowman from Holbein's Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte, 1549 The Pedlar from Holbein's Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte (In Lyone Appresso Giovan Frellone, 1549) Holbein's
series shows the figure of "Death" in many disguises, confronting
individuals from all walks of life. None escape Death's skeletal
clutches, not even the pious.[18] As Davis writes, "Holbein's pictures
are independent dramas in which Death comes upon his victim in the midst
of the latter's own surroundings and activities.[19] This is perhaps
nowhere more strikingly captured than in the wonderful blocks showing
the plowman earning his bread by the sweat of his brow only to have his
horses speed him to his end by Death. The Latin from the 1549 Italian
edition pictured here reads: "In sudore vultus tui, vesceris pane tuo."
("Through the sweat of thy brow you shall eat your bread"), quoting
Genesis 3.19. The Italian verses below translate: ("Miserable in the
sweat of your brow,/ It is necessary that you acquire the bread you need
eat,/ But, may it not displease you to come with me,/ If you are
desirous of rest."). Or there is the nice balance in composition Holbein
achieves between the heavy-laden traveling salesman insisting that he
must still go to market while Death tugs at his sleeve to put down his
wares once and for all: "Venite ad me, qui onerati estis." ("Come to me,
all ye who [labour and] are heavy laden"), quoting Matthew 11.28. The
Italian here translates: ("Come with me, wretch, who are weighed down,/
Since I am the dame who rules the whole world:/ Come and hear my
advice,/ Because I wish to lighten you of this load.").[20] Danse Macabre, a reminder of the universality of death in the St. Peter and St. Paul church, Vilnius Musical settings Musical settings of the motif include: Mattasin oder Toden Tanz, 1598, by August Nörmiger Totentanz. Paraphrase on "Dies irae." by Franz Liszt, 1849, a set of variations based on the plainsong melody "Dies Irae". Danse Macabre by Camille Saint-Saëns, 1874 Songs and Dances of Death, 1875–77, by Modest Mussorgsky Symphony No. 4, 2nd Movement, 1901, by Gustav Mahler Totentanz der Prinzipien, 1914, by Arnold Schönberg The Green Table, 1932, ballet by Kurt Jooss Totentanz, 1934, by Hugo Distler, inspired by the Lübecker Totentanz "Scherzo (Dance of Death)," in Op. 14 Ballad of Heroes, 1939, by Benjamin Britten Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, Op. 67, 4th movement, "Dance of Death," 1944, by Dmitri Shostakovich Der Kaiser von Atlantis, oder Die Tod-Verweigerung, 1944, by Viktor Ullmann and Peter Kien Le Grand Macabre, opera written by György Ligeti (Stockholm 1978) Danse Macabre, song, 1984, by Celtic Frost, Swiss extreme metal band Dance Macabre, 2001, album by The Faint Dance of Death, 2003, an album and a song by Iron Maiden, heavy metal band Cortège & Danse Macabre from the symphonic suite Cantabile, 2009, by Frederik Magle Totentanz (Adès) by Thomas Adès, 2013, a piece for voices and orchestra based on the 15th century text. La Danse Macabre, song on the Shovel Knight soundtrack, 2014, by Jake Kaufman Dance Macabre, 2018, by Ghost (Swedish band), Swedish heavy metal band La danse macabre, song, 2019, by Clément Belio, French multi-instrumentalist Textual examples of the Danse Macabre The
Danse Macabre was a frequent motif in poetry, drama and other written
literature in the Middle Ages in several areas of western Europe. There
is a Spanish Danza de la Muerte, a French Danse Macabre, and a German
Totentanz with various Latin manuscripts written during the 14th
century.[21] Printed editions of books began appearing in the 15th
century, such as the ones produced by Guy Marchant of Paris. Similarly
to the musical or artistic representations, the texts describe living
and dead persons being called to dance or form a procession with
Death.[22] Danse Macabre texts were often, though not always, illustrated with illuminations and woodcuts.[23] There
is one danse macabre text devoted entirely to women: The Danse Macabre
of Women. This work survives in five manuscripts, and two printed
editions. In it, 36 women of various ages, in Paris, are called from
their daily lives and occupations to join the Dance with Death. An
English translation of the French manuscript was published by Ann Tukey
Harrison in 1994.[24] Literary influence The "Death and the
Maiden motif", known from paintings since the early 16th century, is
related to, and may have been derived from, the Danse Macabre. It has
received numerous treatments in various media – most prominently
Schubert's lied "Der Tod und das Mädchen" (1817) and the String Quartet
No. 14 Death and the Maiden, partly derived from its musical material.
Further developments of the Danse Macabre motif include: Godfather Death, a fairy tale, collected by the Brothers Grimm (first published in 1812).
"After Holbein" (1928), short story by Edith Wharton, first published
in the Saturday Evening Post in May 1928; republished in Certain People
(1930) and in The New York Stories of Edith Wharton, ed. Roxana Robinson
(New York Review Books, 2007). "Death and the Compass" (original title: "La muerte y la brújula", 1942), short story by Jorge Luis Borges. A Danse Macabre scene is depicted near the end of Ingmar Bergman's 1957 film The Seventh Seal. "Death and the Senator", short story (1961) by Arthur C. Clarke. "Dance Cadaverous" is a song written and performed by Wayne Shorter (released 1966). Death and the King's Horseman, play by Wole Soyinka (premiered 1975). Dance with Death, a jazz album released in 1980 by Andrew Hill. Danse Macabre, a 1981 non-fiction work by Stephen King.
The Graveyard Book, a 2008 novel by Neil Gaiman. Chapter five, "Danse
Macabre", depicts the ghosts of the Graveyard dancing with the
inhabitants of the Old Town. "Death Dance" (2016), a song written and performed by American rock band, Sevendust. "Lincoln in the Bardo" a novel by George Saunders(published in 2017).
"Dance Macabre", a song written and performed by Swedish metal or hard
rock band Ghost on their 2018 album Prequelle, concentrating on the
Black Death plague of the 14th century." (wikipedia.org) "Halloween
is a celebration observed on October 31, the day before the feast of
All Hallows, also known as Hallowmas or All Saint's Day. The
celebrations and observances of this day occur primarily in regions of
the Western world, albeit with some traditions varying significantly
between geographical areas. Origins Halloween is the eve of
vigil before the Western Christian feast of All Hallows (or All Saints)
which is observed on November 1. This day begins the triduum of
Hallowtide, which culminates with All Souls' Day. In the Middle Ages,
many Christians held a folk belief that All Hallows' Eve was the "night
where the veil between the material world and the afterlife was at its
most transparent".[2] Americas Canada Scottish emigration,
primarily to Canada before 1870 and to the United States thereafter,
brought the Scottish version of the holiday to each country. The
earliest known reference to ritual begging on Halloween in English
speaking North America occurs in 1911 when a newspaper in Kingston,
Ontario reported that it was normal for the smaller children to go
street "guising" on Halloween between 6 and 7 p.m., visiting shops, and
neighbours to be rewarded with nuts and candies for their rhymes and
songs.[3] Canadians spend more on candy at Halloween than at any time
apart from Christmas. Halloween is also a time for charitable
contributions. Until 2006 when UNICEF moved to an online donation
system, collecting small change was very much a part of Canadian
trick-or-treating.[4] Quebec offers themed tours of parts of the old
city and historic cemeteries in the area.[5] In 2014 the hamlet of
Arviat, Nunavut moved their Halloween festivities to the community hall,
cancelling the practice of door-to-door "trick or treating", due to the
risk of roaming polar bears.[6][7] In British Columbia it is a
tradition to set off fireworks at Halloween.[8] United States Children in Halloween costumes at High Point, Seattle, 1943 Community Halloween party in Frazier Park, California. Children on Halloween, Woody Creek, Colorado In
the United States, Halloween did not become a holiday until the 19th
century. The transatlantic migration of nearly two million Irish
following the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849) brought the holiday to the
United States. American librarian and author Ruth Edna Kelley
wrote the first book length history of the holiday in the U.S., The Book
of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en
in America": "All Hallowe'en customs in the United States are borrowed
directly or adapted from those of other countries. The taste in
Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch
party, using Robert Burns's poem Halloween as a guide; or to go
a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored
at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now."[9] The main event for children of
modern Halloween in the United States and Canada is trick-or-treating,
in which children, teenagers, (sometimes) young adults, and parents
(accompanying their children) disguise themselves in costumes and go
door-to-door in their neighborhoods, ringing each doorbell and yelling
"Trick or treat!" to solicit a gift of candy or similar items.[10]
Teenagers and adults will more frequently attend Halloween-themed
costume parties typically hosted by friends or themed events at
nightclubs either on Halloween itself or a weekend close to the holiday. At
the turn of the 20th century, Halloween had turned into a night of
vandalism, with destruction of property and cruelty to animals and
people.[11] Around 1912, the Boy Scouts, Boys Clubs, and other
neighborhood organizations came together to encourage a safe celebration
that would end the destruction that had become so common on this night. The
commercialization of Halloween in the United States did not start until
the 20th century, beginning perhaps with Halloween postcards (featuring
hundreds of designs), which were most popular between 1905 and
1915.[12] Dennison Manufacturing Company (which published its first
Halloween catalog in 1909) and the Beistle Company were pioneers in
commercially made Halloween decorations, particularly die-cut paper
items.[13][14] German manufacturers specialised in Halloween figurines
that were exported to the United States in the period between the two
World Wars. Halloween is now the United States' second most
popular holiday (after Christmas) for decorating; the sale of candy and
costumes is also extremely common during the holiday, which is marketed
to children and adults alike. The National Confectioners Association
(NCA) reported in 2005 that 80% of American adults planned to give out
candy to trick-or-treaters.[15] The NCA reported in 2005 that 93% of
children planned to go trick-or-treating.[16] According to the National
Retail Federation, the most popular Halloween costume themes for adults
are, in order: witch, pirate, vampire, cat, and clown.[17][when?] Each
year, popular costumes are dictated by various current events and pop
culture icons. On many college campuses, Halloween is a major
celebration, with the Friday and Saturday nearest 31 October hosting
many costume parties. Other popular activities are watching horror
movies and visiting haunted houses. Total spending on Halloween is
estimated to be $8.4 billion.[18] Events Four contestants in the Halloween Slick Chick beauty contest in Anaheim, California, 1947 Many
theme parks stage Halloween events annually, such as Halloween Horror
Nights at Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Orlando, Mickey's
Halloween Party and Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party at Disneyland
Resort and Magic Kingdom respectively, and Knott's Scary Farm at Knott's
Berry Farm. One of the more notable parades is New York's Village
Halloween Parade. Each year approximately 50,000 costumed marchers
parade up Sixth Avenue.[19] Salem, Massachusetts, site of the Salem
witch trials, celebrates Halloween throughout the month of October with
tours, plays, concerts, and other activities.[20] A number of venues in
New York's lower Hudson Valley host various events to showcase a
connection with Washington Irving's Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Van
Cortlandt Manor stages the "Great Jack o' Lantern Blaze" featuring
thousands of lighted carved pumpkins.[21] Some locales have had
to modify their celebrations due to disruptive behavior on the part of
young adults. Madison, Wisconsin hosts an annual Halloween celebration.
In 2002, due to the large crowds in the State Street area, a riot broke
out, necessitating the use of mounted police and tear gas to disperse
the crowds.[22] Likewise, Chapel Hill, site of the University of North
Carolina, has a downtown street party which in 2007 drew a crowd
estimated at 80,000 on downtown Franklin Street, in a town with a
population of just 54,000. In 2008, in an effort to curb the influx of
out-of-towners, mayor Kevin Foy put measures in place to make commuting
downtown more difficult on Halloween.[23] In 2014, large crowds of
college students rioted at the Keene, New Hampshire Pumpkin Fest,
whereupon the City Council voted not to grant a permit for the following
year's festival,[24] and organizers moved the event to Laconia for
2015.[25] Dominican Republic In the Dominican Republic it has
been gaining popularity, largely due to many Dominicans living in the
United States and then bringing the custom to the island. In the larger
cities of Santiago or Santo Domingo it has become more common to see
children trick-or-treating, but in smaller towns and villages it is
almost entirely absent, partly due to religious opposition. Tourist
areas such as Sosua and Punta Cana feature many venues with Halloween
celebrations, predominantly geared towards adults.[26] Mexico (Día de los Muertos) Mexican
Tomb on the 2019 Day of the Dead, adorned with the cempasúchil, the
traditional flower of the Day of the Dead, and a Halloween ghost
balloon, at the historic cemetery of San Luis Potosí City Observed
in Mexico and Mexican communities abroad, Day of the Dead (Spanish: Día
de los Muertos) celebrations arose from the syncretism of indigenous
Aztec traditions with the Christian Hallowtide of the Spanish
colonizers. Flower decorations, altars and candies are part of this
holiday season. The holiday is distinct from Halloween in its origins
and observances, but the two have become associated because of
cross-border connections between Mexico and the United States through
popular culture and migration, as the two celebrations occur at the same
time of year and may involve similar imagery, such as skeletons.
Halloween and Día de Muertos have influenced each other in some areas of
the United States and Mexico, with Halloween traditions such as
costumes and face-painting becoming increasingly common features of the
Mexican festival.[27][28] Asia China The Chinese celebrate
the "Hungry Ghost Festival" in mid-July, when it is customary to float
river lanterns to remember those who have died. By contrast, Halloween
is often called "All Saints' Festival" (Wànshèngjié, 萬聖節), or (less
commonly) "All Saints' Eve" (Wànshèngyè, 萬聖夜) or "Eve of All Saints'
Day" (Wànshèngjié Qiányè, 萬聖節前夕), stemming from the term "All Hallows
Eve" (hallow referring to the souls of holy saints). Chinese Christian
churches hold religious celebrations. Non-religious celebrations are
dominated by expatriate Americans or Canadians, but costume parties are
also popular for Chinese young adults, especially in large cities. Hong
Kong Disneyland and Ocean Park (Halloween Bash) host annual Halloween
shows. Mainland China has been less influenced by Anglo
traditions than Hong Kong and Halloween is generally considered
"foreign". As Halloween has become more popular globally it has also
become more popular in China, however, particularly amongst children
attending private or international schools with many foreign teachers
from North America.[29] Hong Kong Traditional "door-to-door"
trick or treating is not commonly practiced in Hong Kong due to the vast
majority of Hong Kong residents living in high-rise apartment blocks.
However, in many buildings catering to expatriates, Halloween parties
and limited trick or treating is arranged by the management. Instances
of street-level trick or treating in Hong Kong occur in ultra-exclusive
gated housing communities such as The Beverly Hills populated by Hong
Kong's super-rich and in expatriate areas like Discovery Bay and the Red
Hill Peninsula. For the general public, there are events at Tsim Sha
Tsui's Avenue of the Stars that try to mimic the celebration.[30] In the
Lan Kwai Fong area of Hong Kong, known as a major entertainment
district for the international community, a Halloween celebration and
parade has taken place for over 20 years, with many people dressing in
costume and making their way around the streets to various drinking
establishments.[31] Many international schools also celebrate Halloween
with costumes, and some put an academic twist on the celebrations such
as the "Book-o-ween" celebrations at Hong Kong International School
where students dress as favorite literary characters. Japan A Halloween display in a local bank window, in Saitama, Japan. Halloween
arrived in Japan mainly as a result of American pop culture. In 2009 it
was celebrated only by expats.[32] The wearing of elaborate costumes by
young adults at night has since become popular in areas such as
Amerikamura in Osaka and Shibuya in Tokyo, where, in October 2012, about
1700 people dressed in costumes to take part in the Halloween
Festival.[33] Celebrations have become popular with young adults as a
costume party and club event.[34] Trick-or-treating for Japanese
children has taken hold in some areas. By the mid-2010s, Yakuza were
giving snacks and sweets to children.[35] Philippines The
period from 31 October through 2 November is a time for remembering dead
family members and friends. Many Filipinos travel back to their
hometowns for family gatherings of festive remembrance.[36] Trick-or-treating
is gradually replacing the dying tradition of Pangangaluluwâ, a local
analogue of the old English custom of souling. People in the provinces
still observe Pangangaluluwâ by going in groups to every house and
offering a song in exchange for money or food. The participants, usually
children, would sing carols about the souls in Purgatory, with the
abúloy (alms for the dead) used to pay for Masses for these souls. Along
with the requested alms, householders sometimes gave the children suman
(rice cakes). During the night, various small items, such as clothing,
plants, etc., would "mysteriously" disappear, only to be discovered the
next morning in the yard or in the middle of the street. In older times,
it was believed that the spirits of ancestors and loved ones visited
the living on this night, manifesting their presence by taking an
item.[37] As the observation of Christmas traditions in the
Philippines begins as early as September, it is a common sight to see
Halloween decorations next to Christmas decorations in urban
settings.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia Starting 2022, Saudi Arabia began to celebrate Halloween in the public in Riyadh under its Saudi Vision 2030.[38] Singapore Around
mid-July Singapore Chinese celebrate "Zhong Yuan Jie / Yu Lan Jie"
(Hungry Ghosts Festival), a time when it is believed that the spirits of
the dead come back to visit their families.[39] In recent years,
Halloween celebrations are becoming more popular, with influence from
the west.[40] In 2012, there were over 19 major Halloween celebration
events around Singapore.[41] SCAPE's Museum of Horrors held its fourth
scare fest in 2014.[42] Universal Studios Singapore hosts "Halloween
Horror Nights".[43] South Korea The popularity of the holiday
among young people in South Korea comes from English academies and
corporate marketing strategies, and was influenced by Halloween
celebrations in Japan and America.[44] Despite not being a public
holiday, it is celebrated in different areas around Seoul, especially
Itaewon and Hondae.[45] Taiwan Children dressed up in Halloween costume in Songshan District, Taipei, Taiwan Traditionally,
Taiwanese people celebrate "Zhong Yuan Pudu Festival", where spirits
that do not have any surviving family members to pay respects to them,
are able to roam the Earth during the seventh lunar month. It is known
as Ghost Month.[46] While some have compared it to Halloween, it has no
relations and the overall meaning is different. In recent years, mainly
as a result of American pop culture, Halloween is becoming more
widespread amongst young Taiwanese people. Halloween events are held in
many areas across Taipei, such as Xinyi Special District and Shilin
District where there are many international schools and expats.[47]
Halloween parties are celebrated differently based on different age
groups. One of the most popular Halloween event is the Tianmu Halloween
Festival, which started in 2009 and is organised by the Taipei City
Office of Commerce.[48] The 2-day annual festivity has attracted more
than 240,000 visitors in 2019. During this festival, stores and
businesses in Tianmu place pumpkin lanterns outside their stores to
identify themselves as trick-or-treat destinations for children.[49] Australia and New Zealand Halloween display in Sydney, Australia. Non-religious
celebrations of Halloween modelled on North American festivities are
growing increasingly popular in Australia despite not being
traditionally part of the culture.[50] Some Australians criticise this
intrusion into their culture.[51][52] Many dislike the commercialisation
and American pop-culture influence.[52][53] Some supporters of the
event place it alongside other cultural traditions such as Saint
Patrick's Day.[54] Halloween historian and author of Halloween:
Pagan Festival to Trick or Treat, Mark Oxbrow says while Halloween may
have been popularised by depictions of it in US movies and TV shows, it
is not a new entry into Australian culture.[55] His research shows
Halloween was first celebrated in Australia in Castlemaine, Victoria, in
1858, which was 43 years before Federation. His research shows
Halloween traditions were brought to the country by Scottish and Irish
miners who settled in Victoria during the Gold Rush. Because of
the polarised opinions about Halloween, growing numbers of people are
decorating their letter boxes to indicate that children are welcome to
come knocking. In the past decade, the popularity of Halloween in
Australia has grown.[56] In 2020, the first magazine dedicated solely to
celebrating Halloween in Australia was launched, called Hallozween,[57]
and in 2021, sales of costumes, decorations and carving pumpkins soared
to an all-time high[58] despite the effect of the global COVID-19
pandemic limiting celebrations. In New Zealand, Halloween is not
celebrated to the same extent as in North America, although in recent
years non-religious celebrations have become more common.[59][60]
Trick-or-treat has become increasingly popular with minors in New
Zealand, despite being not a "British or Kiwi event" and the influence
of American globalisation.[61] One criticism of Halloween in New Zealand
is that it is overly commercialised - by The Warehouse, for
example.[61] Europe A jack-o'-lantern in Finland Over the
years, Halloween has become more popular in Europe and has been
partially ousting some older customs like the Rübengeistern [de]
(English: turnip ghosts, beet spirit), Martinisingen, and others.[62] France Halloween
was introduced to most of France in the 1990s.[citation needed] In
Brittany, Halloween had been celebrated for centuries and is known as
Kala Goanv (Night of Spirits). During this time it is believed that the
spirits of the dead return to the world of the living lead by the Ankou,
the collector of souls. Also during this time, Bretons bake Kornigou, a
pastry shaped like the antlers of a stag.[citation needed] Germany "Don't drink and fly" Halloween decoration in Germany Halloween
was not generally observed in Germany prior to the 1990s, but has been
increasing in popularity. It has been associated with the influence of
United States culture, and "Trick or Treating" (German: Süßes sonst
gibt's Saures) has been occurring in various German cities, especially
in areas such as the Dahlem neighborhood in Berlin, which was part of
the American zone during the Cold War. Today, Halloween in Germany
brings in 200 million euros a year, through multiple industries.[63]
Halloween is celebrated by both children and adults. Adults celebrate at
themed costume parties and clubs, while children go trick or treating.
Complaints of vandalism associated with Halloween "Tricks" are
increasing, particularly from many elderly Germans unfamiliar with
"Trick or Treating".[64] Greece In Greece, Halloween is not
celebrated widely and it is a working day, with little public interest,
since the early 2000s. Recently, it has somewhat increased in popularity
as both a secular celebration; although Carnival is vastly more popular
among Greeks. For very few, Halloween is[when?] considered the fourth
most popular festival in the country after Christmas, Easter, and
Carnival. Retail businesses, bars, nightclubs, and certain theme parks
might organize Halloween parties. This boost in popularity has been
attributed to the influence of western consumerism. Since it is a
working day, Halloween is not celebrated on 31 October unless the date
falls on a weekend, in which case it is celebrated by some during the
last weekend before All Hallow's Eve, usually in the form of themed
house parties and retail business decorations. Trick-or-treating is not
widely popular because similar activities are already undertaken during
Carnival. The slight rise in popularity of Halloween in Greece has led
to some increase in its popularity throughout nearby countries in the
Balkans and Cyprus. In the latter, there has been an increase in
Greek-Cypriot retailers selling Halloween merchandise every year.[65] Ireland A
plaster cast of a traditional Irish turnip (rutabaga) jack-o'-lantern,
c. early 20th century, on display in the Museum of Country Life,
Ireland. On Halloween night, adults and children dress up as
various monsters and creatures, light bonfires, and enjoy fireworks
displays; Derry in Northern Ireland is home to the largest organized
Halloween celebration on the island, in the form of a street carnival
and fireworks display.[66] Snap-Apple Night (1832) by Daniel Maclise depicts apple bobbing and divination games at a Halloween party in Ireland Games
are often played, such as bobbing for apples, in which apples, peanuts,
other nuts and fruits, and some small coins are placed in a basin of
water.[67] Everyone takes turns catching as many items possible using
only their mouths. Another common game involves the hands-free eating of
an apple hung on a string attached to the ceiling. Games of divination
are also played at Halloween.[68] Colcannon is traditionally served on
Halloween.[67] 31 October is the busiest day of the year for the
Emergency Services.[69] Bangers and fireworks are illegal in the
Republic of Ireland; however, they are commonly smuggled in from
Northern Ireland where they are legal.[70] Bonfires are frequently built
around Halloween.[71] Trick-or-treating is popular amongst children on
31 October and Halloween parties and events are commonplace. A carved pumpkin in Sardinia Italy In
Italy All Saints' Day is a public holiday. On 2 November, Tutti i Morti
or All Souls' Day, families remember loved ones who have died. These
are still the main holidays.[72] In some Italian tradition, children
would awake on the morning of All Saints or All Souls to find small
gifts from their deceased ancestors. In Sardinia, Concas de Mortu (Head
of the deads), carved pumpkins that look like skulls, with candles
inside are displayed.[73][74][75] Halloween is, however, gaining in
popularity, and involves costume parties for young adults.[76] The
traditions to carve pumpkins in a skull figure, lighting candles inside,
or to beg for small gifts for the deads e.g. sweets or nuts, also
belong to North Italy.[77] In Veneto these carved pumpkins were called
lumère (lanterns) or suche dei morti (deads' pumpkins).[78] Poland Since
the fall of Communism in 1989, Halloween has become increasingly
popular in Poland. Particularly, it is celebrated among younger people.
The influx of Western tourists and expats throughout the 1990s
introduced the costume party aspect of Hallowe'en celebrations,
particularly in clubs and at private house parties. Door-to-door trick
or treating is not common. Pumpkin carving is becoming more evident,
following a strong North American version of the tradition. Romania Romanians
observe the Feast of St. Andrew, patron saint of Romania, on 30
November. On St. Andrew's Eve ghosts are said to be about. A number of
customs related to divination, in other places connected to Halloween,
are associated with this night.[79] However, with the popularity of
Dracula in western Europe, around Halloween the Romanian tourist
industry promotes trips to locations connected to the historical Vlad
Tepeș and the more fanciful Dracula of Bram Stoker. One of the most
successful Halloween Parties in Transylvania takes place in Sighișoara,
the citadel where Vlad the Impaler was born. This party include magician
shows, ballet show and The Ritual Killing of a Living Dead[80] The
biggest Halloween party in Transylvania take place at Bran Castle, aka
Dracula's Castle from Transylvania.[81] Both the Catholic and
Orthodox Churches in Romania discourage Halloween celebrations, advising
their parishioners to focus rather on the "Day of the Dead" on 1
November, when special religious observances are held for the souls of
the deceased.[82] Opposition by religious and nationalist groups,
including calls to ban costumes and decorations in schools in 2015, have
been met with criticism.[83][84][85] Halloween parties are popular in
bars and nightclubs.[86] Russia In Russia most Christians are
Orthodox, and in the Orthodox Church Halloween is on the Saturday after
Pentecost and therefore 4 to 5 months before western Halloween.
Celebration of western Halloween began in the 1990s around the downfall
of the Soviet regime, when costume and ghoulish parties spread
throughout night clubs throughout Russia. Halloween is generally
celebrated by younger generations and is not widely celebrated in civic
society (e.g. theaters or libraries). In fact, Halloween is among the
Western celebrations that the Russian government and politicians—which
have grown increasingly anti-Western in the early 2010s—are trying to
eliminate from public celebration.[87][88][89] Serbia Halloween
(Serbian Cyrillic: Ноћ вештица, lit. "Night of Witches") has not been
celebrated until recently. The main reason for that is because of
Halloween being against the Serbian traditions and that it encourages
“feeding the devil”. Halloween is a work day in Serbia. Nowadays, it is
very popular among younger generations. Many schools (mostly elementary
schools) in Serbia throw special Halloween parties, full of children and
teenagers wearing costumes and masks. Bars, nightclubs and fun parks
organise Halloween parties for adults and young adults. Spain In
Spain, celebrations involve eating castanyes (roasted chestnuts),
panellets (special almond balls covered in pine nuts), moniatos (roast
or baked sweet potato), Ossos de Sant cake and preserved fruit (candied
or glazed fruit). Moscatell (Muscat) is drunk from porrons.[90] Around
the time of this celebration, it is common for street vendors to sell
hot toasted chestnuts wrapped in newspaper. In many places,
confectioners often organise raffles of chestnuts and preserved fruit. The
tradition of eating these foods comes from the fact that during All
Saints' night, on the eve of All Souls' Day in the Christian tradition,
bell ringers would ring bells in commemoration of the dead into the
early morning. Friends and relatives would help with this task, and
everyone would eat these foods for sustenance.[91] Other versions
of the story state that the Castanyada originates at the end of the
18th century and comes from the old funeral meals, where other foods,
such as vegetables and dried fruit were not served. The meal had the
symbolic significance of a communion with the souls of the departed:
while the chestnuts were roasting, prayers would be said for the person
who had just died.[92] The festival is usually depicted with the
figure of a castanyera: an old lady, dressed in peasant's clothing and
wearing a headscarf, sitting behind a table, roasting chestnuts for
street sale. In recent years, the Castanyada has become a
revetlla of All Saints and is celebrated in the home and community. It
is the first of the four main school festivals, alongside Christmas,
Carnestoltes and St George's Day, without reference to ritual or
commemoration of the dead.[93] Galicia is known two have the
second largest Halloween or Samain festivals in Europe and during this
time, a drink called Queimada is often served. Sweden On All
Hallow's Eve, a Requiem Mass is widely attended every year at Uppsala
Cathedral, part of the Lutheran Church of Sweden.[94] Throughout
the period of Allhallowtide, starting with All Hallow's Eve, Swedish
families visit churchyards and adorn the graves of their family members
with lit candles and wreaths fashioned from pine branches.[94] Among
children, the practice of dressing in costume and collecting candy
gained popularity beginning around 2005.[95] The American traditions of
Halloween have however been met with skepticism among the older
generations, in part due to conflicting with the Swedish traditions on
All Hallow's Eve and in part due to their commercialism.[96] Switzerland In
Switzerland, Halloween, after first becoming popular in 1999, is on the
wane, and is most popular with young adults who attend parties.
Switzerland already has a "festival overload" and even though Swiss
people like to dress up for any occasion, they do prefer a traditional
element, such as in the Fasnacht tradition of chasing away winter using
noise and masks.[97][98] United Kingdom and Crown dependencies England See also: Mischief Night See also: Allantide In
the past, on All Souls' Eve families would stay up late, and little
"soul cakes" were eaten. At the stroke of midnight, there was solemn
silence among households, which had candles burning in every room to
guide the souls back to visit their earthly homes and a glass of wine on
the table to refresh them. The tradition of giving soul cakes that
originated in Great Britain and Ireland was known as souling, often seen
as the origin of modern trick or treating in North America, and souling
continued in parts of England as late as the 1930s, with children going
from door to door singing songs and saying prayers for the dead in
return for cakes or money.[99] Trick or treating and other
Halloween celebrations are extremely popular, with shops decorated with
witches and pumpkins, and young people attending costume parties.[100] Scotland The
name Halloween is first attested in the 16th century as a Scottish
shortening of the fuller All-Hallow-Even, that is, the night before All
Hallows' Day.[101] Dumfries poet John Mayne's 1780 poem made note of
pranks at Halloween "What fearfu' pranks ensue!". Scottish poet Robert
Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition, and portrayed some of the
customs in his poem Halloween (1785).[102] According to Burns, Halloween
is "thought to be a night when witches, devils, and other
mischief-making beings are all abroad on their baneful midnight
errands".[103] Among the earliest record of Guising at Halloween
in Scotland is in 1895, where masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns
made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes,
fruit and money.[104] If children approached the door of a house, they
were given offerings of food. The children's practice of "guising",
going from door to door in costumes for food or coins, is a traditional
Halloween custom in Scotland.[3] These days children who knock on their
neighbours doors have to sing a song or tell stories for a gift of
sweets or money.[105] A traditional Halloween game includes apple
"dooking",[106] or "dunking" or (i.e., retrieving one from a bucket of
water using only one's mouth), and attempting to eat, while blindfolded,
a treacle/jam-coated scone hanging on a piece of string. Traditional
customs and lore include divination practices, ways of trying to
predict the future. A traditional Scottish form of divining one's future
spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over
one's shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first
letter of the future spouse's name.[107] In Kilmarnock, Halloween is also celebrated on the last Friday of the month, and is known colloquially as "Killieween".[108] Isle of Man See also: Hop-tu-Naa Halloween is a popular traditional occasion on the Isle of Man, where it is known as Hop-tu-Naa. Elsewhere The children of the largest town in Bonaire gather together on Halloween day. Saint Helena In
Saint Helena, Halloween is actively celebrated, largely along the
American model, with ghosts, skeletons, devils, vampires, witches and
the like. Imitation pumpkins are used instead of real pumpkins because
the pumpkin harvesting season in Saint Helena's hemisphere is not near
Halloween. Trick-or-treating is widespread. Party venues provide
entertainment for adults." (wikipedia.org) "A skeleton is the
structural frame that supports the body of most animals. There are
several types of skeletons, including the exoskeleton, which is a rigid
outer shell that holds up an organism's shape; the endoskeleton, a rigid
internal frame to which the organs and soft tissues attach; and the
hydroskeleton, a flexible internal structure supported by the
hydrostatic pressure of body fluids. Vertebrates are animals with
an endoskeleton centered around an axial vertebral column, and their
skeletons are typically composed of bones and cartilages. Invertebrates
are other animals that lack a vertebral column, and their skeletons
vary, including hard-shelled exoskeleton (arthropods and most molluscs),
plated internal shells (e.g. cuttlebones in some cephalopods) or rods
(e.g. ossicles in echinoderms), hydrostatically supported body cavities
(most), and spicules (sponges). Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue
that is found in the skeletal systems of vertebrates and invertebrates. Etymology The term skeleton comes from Ancient Greek σκελετός (skeletós) 'dried up'.[1] Sceleton is an archaic form of the word.[2] Classification Skeletons
can be defined by several attributes. Solid skeletons consist of hard
substances, such as bone, cartilage, or cuticle. These can be further
divided by location; internal skeletons are endoskeletons, and external
skeletons are exoskeletons. Skeletons may also be defined by rigidity,
where pliant skeletons are more elastic than rigid skeletons.[3] Fluid
or hydrostatic skeletons do not have hard structure like solid
skeletons, instead functioning via pressurized fluids. Hydrostatic
skeletons are always internal.... Humans Main article: Human skeleton Study of Skeletons, c. 1510, by Leonardo da Vinci The
skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and
supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a
scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs
such as the brain, lungs, heart and spinal cord.[21] The biggest bone in
the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes
bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 13.1%
of the total body weight,[22] and half of this weight is water. Fused
bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Not all bones are
interconnected directly: There are three bones in each middle ear called
the ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone,
which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for
the tongue, does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being
supported by muscles and ligaments. There are 206 bones in the
adult human skeleton, although this number depends on whether the pelvic
bones (the hip bones on each side) are counted as one or three bones on
each side (ilium, ischium, and pubis), whether the coccyx or tail bone
is counted as one or four separate bones, and does not count the
variable wormian bones between skull sutures. Similarly, the sacrum is
usually counted as a single bone, rather than five fused vertebrae.
There is also a variable number of small sesamoid bones, commonly found
in tendons. The patella or kneecap on each side is an example of a
larger sesamoid bone. The patellae are counted in the total, as they are
constant. The number of bones varies between individuals and with age –
newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse
together.[citation needed] These bones are organized into a longitudinal
axis, the axial skeleton, to which the appendicular skeleton is
attached.[23] The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed, and the bones contain marrow, which produces blood cells. There
exist several general differences between the male and female
skeletons. The male skeleton, for example, is generally larger and
heavier than the female skeleton. In the female skeleton, the bones of
the skull are generally less angular. The female skeleton also has wider
and shorter breastbone and slimmer wrists. There exist significant
differences between the male and female pelvis which are related to the
female's pregnancy and childbirth capabilities. The female pelvis is
wider and shallower than the male pelvis. Female pelvises also have an
enlarged pelvic outlet and a wider and more circular pelvic inlet. The
angle between the pubic bones is known to be sharper in males, which
results in a more circular, narrower, and near heart-shaped pelvis."
(wikipedia.org) "A
skeleton is a type of physically manifested undead often found in
fantasy, gothic, and horror fiction, as well as mythology, folklore, and
various kinds of art. Most are human skeletons, but they can also be
from any creature or race found on Earth or in the fantasy world. Myth and folklore Animated
human skeletons have been used as a personification of death in Western
culture since the Middle Ages, a personification perhaps influenced by
the valley of the dry bones in the Book of Ezekiel.[1] The Grim Reaper
is often depicted as a hooded skeleton holding a scythe (and
occasionally an hourglass), which has been attributed to Hans Holbein
the Younger (1538).[2] Death as one of the biblical horsemen of the
Apocalypse has been depicted as a skeleton riding a horse. The Triumph
of Death is a 1562 painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicting an
army of skeletons raiding a town and slaughtering its occupants.[3] "The
Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was" is a Brothers
Grimm fairy tale in which a boy named Hans joins a circle of dancing
skeletons.[4] In Japanese folklore, Mekurabe are rolling skulls with eyeballs who menace Taira no Kiyomori.[5] José Guadalupe Posada's 1913 La Calavera Catrina zinc etching Mexico Figurines
and images of skeletons doing routine things are common in Mexico's Day
of the Dead celebration, where skulls symbolize life and their familiar
circumstances invite levity. Highly-decorated sugar-skull candy has
become one of the most recognizable elements of the celebrations.[6][7]
They are known in Mexico as calacas, a Mexican Spanish term simply
meaning "skeleton". The modern association between skeleton iconography
and the Day of the Dead was inspired by La Calavera Catrina, a zinc
etching created by Mexican cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada in the 1910s
and published posthumously in 1930.[8] Initially a satire of Mexican
women who were ashamed of their indigenous origins and dressed imitating
the French style, wearing heavy makeup to make their skin look whiter,
it later became a more general symbol of vanity.[9] During the 20th
Century, the Catrina entrenched itself in the Mexican consciousness and
became a national icon, often depicted in folk art. Modern fiction [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014) Literature
The animated skeleton features in some Gothic fiction. One early
example is in the short story "Thurnley Abbey" (1908) by Perceval
Landon, originally published in his collection Raw Edges.[10] It is
reprinted in many modern anthologies, such as The 2nd Fontana Book of
Great Ghost Stories and The Penguin Book of Horror Stories. An
anthropomorphic depiction of Death which looks like a skeleton in a
black robe appears in almost all volumes of Terry Pratchett's fantasy
series Discworld, including five novels where he is the lead
character.[11] In the manga/anime One Piece, Brook, who is one of
the main characters, is an animated skeleton after consuming the
Revive-Revive Fruit. Film and TV Undead skeletons have
been portrayed in fantasy films such as The 7th Voyage of Sinbad
(1958), The Black Cauldron (1985), Army of Darkness (1992), The
Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), and Corpse Bride (2005). An
extended battle scene against an army of skeletal warriors was produced
by animator Ray Harryhausen for Jason and the Argonauts (1963) and is
remembered as one of the most sophisticated and influential visual
effects sequences of its day.[12] Undead skeletons always appear
as funny characters in Thai fantasy folk television dramas. They are
often referred to as "Na Phi" ("uncle ghost").[13] A CG art skeleton, as commonly found in modern fantasy-theme games. Games
Animated skeletons have been used and portrayed extensively in fantasy
role-playing games. In a tradition that goes back to the pen-and-paper
game Dungeons & Dragons, the basic animated skeleton is commonly
employed as a low-level undead enemy, typically easy for a player to
defeat in combat. Thus, in games which make use of them, such enemies
often appear relatively early in the gameplay and are considered a
suitable opponent for novice players.[14] In these contexts, they are
commonly armed with medieval weapons and sometimes wear armor. In
the PlayStation action-adventure series MediEvil, the protagonist is an
animated skeleton knight named Sir Daniel Fortesque.[15] In the
1999 cult classic Planescape: Torment, Morte is a character who joins
the protagonist on his quest and is essentially a sentient, levitating
human skull with intact eyeballs who cracks wise and fights by
biting.[16] In the 2009 Minecraft video game, skeletons appear as
bow-wielding monsters that shoot players with their bows and burn under
the sunlight unless they wear helmets. Sometimes the skeletons spawn
with enchanted bows or a random piece of armor, or random full armor, or
without a bow, and they can choose melee weapons. On Halloween, they
can spawn wearing carved pumpkins or Jack O' Lanterns on their heads.
Variants include the wither skeleton, which causes the player to wither
away due to the Wither effect, and the stray, which is a frozen variant
found in snowy biomes. In the video game Fable III, there exist a
race of antagonal characters called "hollow men" which are featured
throughout the game. A duo of animated skeleton brothers plays an
important role in the role-playing game Undertale. Named Sans and
Papyrus, the brothers' dialogue text is printed in Comic Sans and
Papyrus fonts, respectively.[17] Following a poll taken during
their Kickstarter campaign, Larian Studios added a playable skeleton
race in their 2017 RPG Divinity: Original Sin II, as well as an ancient
skeletal character named Fane.[18] Following the first game, the
skeletons were re-added in Minecraft Dungeons, a 2020 dungeon crawler
game released by Mojang Studios as the guards of The Nameless One, the
king of the undead. In this form, they are equipped with glaives,
shields, and iron helmets and chestplates, and are referred to as
Skeleton Vanguards. They also spawn as their original bow-wielding form,
sometimes wearing iron helmet. Other DLCs include exclusive variants of
skeletons. The Mario series has some Koopa Troopa-skeleton
themed enemies known as Dry Bones, where after they get hit, they return
to their form. Bowser also has a skeleton form known as Dry Bowser,
first debuted in New Super Mario Bros., and featured in other games such
as Mario Party and Mario Kart. The Legend of Zelda series
features an enemy called Stalfos, armed skeletons who serve as regular
enemies and occasionally as minibosses. Variations such as Stalkids and
Stalblins also appear in various games in the series. In the Elder Scrolls series, skeletons are featured as one of the undead creatures and they are armed. In Heroes of Might and Magic 3, skeletons are recruitable troops from the Town, Necropolis." (wikipedia.org) "Skull art is found in various cultures of the world. Indigenous
Mexican art celebrates the skeleton and uses it as a regular motif. The
use of skulls and skeletons in art originated before the Conquest: The
Aztecs excelled in stone sculptures and created striking carvings of
their Gods.[1] Coatlicue, the Goddess of earth and death, was portrayed
with a necklace of human hearts, hands and a skull pendant. She was
imbued with the drama and grandeur necessary to dazzle the subject
people and to convey the image of an implacable state. The worship of
death involved worship of life, while the skull – symbol of death – was a
promise to resurrection. The Aztecs carved skulls in monoliths of lava,
and made masks of obsidian and jade. Furthermore, the skull motif was
used in decoration. They were molded on pots, traced on scrolls, woven
into garments, and formalized into hieroglyphs. Hindu temples and
depiction of some Hindu deities have displayed skull art. Spanish invasion When
the Spanish invaded and conquered Tenochtitlan in the sixteenth
century, they imposed the Catholic religion and Spanish folk-practices
of the era. This included the pagan tradition of celebrating the dead
with food-offerings and feasts. However, the Spanish priests were eager
to discontinue these ancient traditions that found fertile ground in
Mexico. The Spanish suppressed the Mexican skull art tradition because
it was too Indito or pagan for their European tastes. Not until Mexico
won its independence from Spain in 1821, did skull art begin to
re-emerge as a symbol of Mexicanidad.[citation needed] Hindu art Skull
art is found in depictions of some Hindu Gods. Lord Shiva has been
depicted as carrying skull.[2] Goddess Chamunda is described as wearing a
garland of severed heads or skulls (Mundamala). Kedareshwara Temple,
Hoysaleswara Temple, Chennakeshava Temple, Lakshminarayana Temple are
some of the Hindu temples that include sculptures of skulls and Goddess
Chamunda.[3] The temple of Kali is veneered with skulls."
(wikipedia.org) "Symbols
of death are the motifs, images and concepts associated with death
throughout different cultures, religions and societies. Images Image of the Grim Reaper on the tailfin of a U.S. Navy F-14D Tomcat of Flight Squadron, VF-101, nicknamed the "Grim Reapers." Traditional
Jolly Roger, the flag of "Black Sam" Bellamy and other pirates of the
18th century, displaying a skull and crossbones. Various images
are used traditionally to symbolize death; these rank from blunt
depictions of cadavers and their parts to more allusive suggestions that
time is fleeting and all men are mortals. The human skull is an
obvious and frequent symbol of death, found in many cultures and
religious traditions.[1] Human skeletons and sometimes non-human animal
skeletons and skulls can also be used as blunt images of death; the
traditional figures of the Grim Reaper – a black-hooded skeleton with a
scythe – is one use of such symbolism.[2] Within the Grim Reaper itself,
the skeleton represents the decayed body whereas the robe symbolizes
those worn by religious people conducting funeral services.[2] The skull
and crossbones motif (☠) has been used among Europeans as a symbol of
both piracy and poison.[3] The skull is also important as it remains the
only "recognizable" aspect of a person once they have died.[3] Decayed
cadavers can also be used to depict death; in medieval Europe, they
were often featured in artistic depictions of the danse macabre, or in
cadaver tombs which depicted the living and decomposed body of the
person entombed. Coffins also serve as blunt reminders of mortality.[4]
Europeans were also seen to use coffins and cemeteries to symbolize the
wealth and status of the person who has died, serving as a reminder to
the living and the deceased as well.[4] Less blunt symbols of death
frequently allude to the passage of time and the fragility of life, and
can be described as memento mori;[5] that is, an artistic or symbolic
reminder of the inevitability of death. Clocks, hourglasses, sundials,
and other timepieces both call to mind that time is passing.[3]
Similarly, a candle both marks the passage of time, and bears witness
that it will eventually burn itself out as well as a symbol of hope of
salvation.[3] These sorts of symbols were often incorporated into
vanitas paintings, a variety of early still life. Certain animals
such as crows, cats, owls, moths, vultures and bats are associated with
death; some because they feed on carrion, others because they are
nocturnal.[3] Along with death, vultures can also represent
transformation and renewal.[3] Religious symbols Veve of Maman Brigitte, the loa of death in Haitian Vodou. Religious symbols of death and depictions of the afterlife will vary with the religion practiced by the people who use them. Tombs,
tombstones, and other items of funeral architecture are obvious
candidates for symbols of death.[3] In ancient Egypt, the gods Osiris
and Ptah were typically depicted as mummies; these gods governed the
Egyptian afterlife. In Christianity, the Christian cross is frequently
used on graves, and is meant to call to mind the crucifixion of
Jesus.[3] Some Christians also erect temporary crosses along public
highways as memorials for those who died in accidents. In Buddhism, the
symbol of a wheel represents the perpetual cycle of death and rebirth
that happens in samsara.[6] The symbol of a grave or tomb, especially
one in a picturesque or unusual location, can be used to represent
death, as in Nicolas Poussin's famous painting Et in Arcadia ego. Images
of life in the afterlife are also symbols of death. Here, again, the
ancient Egyptians produced detailed pictorial representations of the
life enjoyed by the dead. In Christian folk religion, the spirits of the
dead are often depicted as winged angels or angel-like creatures,
dwelling among the clouds; this imagery of the afterlife is frequently
used in comic depictions of the life after death.[3] In the Islamic view
of the Afterlife, death is symbolised by a black and white ram which in
turn will be slain to symbolise the Death of Death. The Banshee
also symbolizes the coming of death in Irish Mythology.[3] This is
typically represented by an older woman who is seen sobbing to symbolize
the suffering of a person before their death.[3] Colors Black is
the color of mourning in many European cultures. Black clothing is
typically worn at funerals to show mourning for the death of the person.
In East Asia, white is similarly associated with mourning; it
represented the purity and perfection of the deceased person's
spirit.[7] During the Victorian era, purple and grey were considered to
be mourning colors in addition to black.[8] Furthermore, in Revelation 6
in The Bible, Death is one of the four horsemen; and he rides a pale
horse." (wikipedia.org) "Skull
symbolism is the attachment of symbolic meaning to the human skull. The
most common symbolic use of the skull is as a representation of death. Humans
can often recognize the buried fragments of an only partially revealed
cranium even when other bones may look like shards of stone. The human
brain has a specific region for recognizing faces,[1] and is so attuned
to finding them that it can see faces in a few dots and lines or
punctuation marks; the human brain cannot separate the image of the
human skull from the familiar human face. Because of this, both the
death and the now-past life of the skull are symbolized. Hindu temples and depiction of some Hindu deities have displayed association with skulls. Moreover,
a human skull with its large eye sockets displays a degree of neoteny,
which humans often find visually appealing—yet a skull is also obviously
dead, and to some can even seem to look sad due to the downward facing
slope on the ends of the eye sockets. A skull with the lower jaw intact
may also appear to be grinning or laughing due to the exposed teeth. As
such, human skulls often have a greater visual appeal than the other
bones of the human skeleton, and can fascinate even as they repel.
Societies predominantly associate skulls with death and evil. Unicode reserves character U+1F480 (💀) for a human skull pictogram. Examples Throughout
the centuries skulls symbolized either warnings of various threats or
as reminder of the vanity of earthly pleasures in contrast with our own
mortality. Nevertheless, the skull seems to be omnipresent in the first
decade of the twenty-first century, appearing on jeweler, bags, clothing
and in the shape of various decorative items. However, the increasing
use of the skull as a visual symbol in popular culture reduces its
original meaning as well as its traditional connotation.[2][3] Literature One
of the best-known examples of skull symbolism occurs in Shakespeare's
Hamlet, where the title character recognizes the skull of an old friend:
"Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest..."
Hamlet is inspired to utter a bitter soliloquy of despair and rough
ironic humor. Compare Hamlet's words "Here hung those lips that I
have kissed I know not how oft" to Talmudic sources: "...Rabi Ishmael
[the High Priest]... put [the severed head of a martyr] in his lap...
and cried: oh sacred mouth!...who buried you in ashes...!". The skull
was a symbol of melancholy for Shakespeare's contemporaries.[4] An
old Yoruba folktale[5] tells of a man who encountered a skull mounted
on a post by the wayside. To his astonishment, the skull spoke. The man
asked the skull why it was mounted there. The skull said that it was
mounted there for talking. The man then went to the king, and told the
king of the marvel he had found, a talking skull. The king and the man
returned to the place where the skull was mounted; the skull remained
silent. The king then commanded that the man be beheaded, and ordered
that his head be mounted in place of the skull. The skull speaks
in the catacombs of the Capuchin brothers beneath the church of Santa
Maria della Concezione in Rome,[6] where disassembled bones and teeth
and skulls of the departed Capuchins have been rearranged to form a rich
Baroque architecture of the human condition, in a series of anterooms
and subterranean chapels with the inscription, set in bones: Noi eravamo quello che voi siete, e quello che noi siamo voi sarete. "We were what you are; and what we are, you will be." Art The skull of Adam at the foot of the Cross: detail from a Crucifixion by Fra Angelico, 1435 The
Serpent crawling through the eyes of a skull is a familiar image that
survives in contemporary Goth subculture. The serpent is a chthonic god
of knowledge and of immortality, because he sloughs off his skin. The
serpent guards the Tree in the Greek Garden of the Hesperides and,
later, a Tree in the Garden of Eden. The serpent in the skull is always
making its way through the socket that was the eye: knowledge persists
beyond death, the emblem says, and the serpent has the secret. The
late medieval and Early Renaissance Northern and Italian painters place
the skull where it lies at the foot of the Cross at Golgotha (Aramaic
for the place of the skull). But for them it has become quite
specifically the skull of Adam. Skull on table Vanitas, by Pieter Claesz, painted in 1630 In
Elizabethan England, the Death's-Head Skull, usually a depiction
without the lower jawbone, was emblematic of bawds, rakes, sexual
adventurers and prostitutes; the term Death's-Head was actually parlance
for these rakes, and most of them wore half-skull rings to advertise
their station, either professionally or otherwise. The original Rings
were wide silver objects, with a half-skull decoration not much wider
than the rest of the band; This allowed it to be rotated around the
finger to hide the skull in polite company, and to reposition it in the
presence of likely conquests.[citation needed] Venetian painters
of the 16th century elaborated moral allegories for their patrons, and
memento mori was a common theme. The theme carried by an inscription on a
rustic tomb, "Et in Arcadia ego"—"I too [am] in Arcadia", if it is
Death that is speaking—is made famous by two paintings by Nicolas
Poussin, but the motto made its pictorial debut in Guercino's version,
1618–22 (in the Galleria Barberini, Rome): in it, two awestruck young
shepherds come upon an inscribed plinth, in which the inscription ET IN
ARCADIA EGO gains force from the prominent presence of a wormy skull in
the foreground. lady at round mirror and dressing table resembling a skull "All is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert All is Vanity by C. Allan Gilbert, 1873–1929 In
C. Allan Gilbert's much-reproduced lithograph of a lovely Gibson Girl
seated at her fashionable vanity table, an observer can witness its
transformation into an alternate image. A ghostly echo of the worldly
Magdalene's repentance motif lurks behind this turn-of-the-20th century
icon. The skull becomes an icon itself when its painted representation
becomes a substitute for the real thing. Simon Schama chronicled the
ambivalence of the Dutch to their own worldly success during the Dutch
Golden Age of the first half of the 17th century in The Embarrassment of
Riches. The possibly frivolous and merely decorative nature of
the still life genre was avoided by Pieter Claesz in his Vanitas: Skull,
opened case-watch, overturned emptied wineglasses, snuffed candle,
book: "Lo, the wine of life runs out, the spirit is snuffed, oh Man, for
all your learning, time yet runs on: Vanity!" The visual cues of the
hurry and violence of life are contrasted with eternity in this somber,
still and utterly silent painting. Symbolism of Fortuna's wheel divine justice and Skull mortality in a Pompeiian mosaic Symbolism of chance (Fortuna's wheel) divine justice (right angle and plumb-bob) and mortality in a Pompeiian mosaic The
skull speaks. It says "Et in Arcadia ego" or simply "Vanitas." In a
first-century mosaic tabletop from a Pompeiian triclinium (now in
Naples), the skull is crowned with a carpenter's square and plumb-bob,
which dangles before its empty eyesockets (Death as the great leveler),
while below is an image of the ephemeral and changeable nature of life: a
butterfly atop a wheel—a table for a philosopher's symposium. Similarly,
a skull might be seen crowned by a chaplet of dried roses, a carpe
diem, though rarely as bedecked as Mexican printmaker José Guadalupe
Posada's Catrina. In Mesoamerican architecture, stacks of skulls (real or sculpted) represented the result of human sacrifices. Pirates The
pirate death's-head epitomizes the pirates' ruthlessness and despair;
their usage of death imagery might be paralleled with their occupation
challenging the natural order of things.[7] "Pirates also affirmed their
unity symbolically", Marcus Rediker asserts, remarking the skeleton or
skull symbol with bleeding heart and hourglass on the black pirate
ensign, and asserting "it triad of interlocking symbols—death, violence,
limited time—simultaneously pointed to meaningful parts of the seaman's
experience, and eloquently bespoke the pirates' own consciousness of
themselves as preyed upon in turn. Pirates seized the symbol of
mortality from ship captains who used the skull 'as a marginal sign in
their logs to indicate the record of a death'"[8] Religion The Mexican death goddess or folk saint known as Santa Muerte is portrayed with a skull instead of a normal head.[9] Skull
art is found in depictions of some Hindu Gods. Shiva has been depicted
as carrying skull.[10] Goddess Chamunda is described as wearing a
garland of severed heads or skulls (Mundamala). Kedareshwara Temple,
Hoysaleswara Temple, Chennakeshava Temple, Lakshminarayana Temple are
some of the Hindu temples that include sculptures of skulls and Goddess
Chamunda.[11] The temple of Kali is veneered with skulls, but the
goddess Kali offers life through the welter of blood. In Vajrayana Buddhist iconography, skull symbolism is often used in depictions of wrathful deities and of dakinis. In
some Korean life replacement narratives, a person discovers an
abandoned skull and worships it. The skull later gives advice on how to
cheat the gods of death and prevent an early death. An example of the
OSS "Black Propaganda" Humor: at left an Adolf Hitler profile on a
"German Reich" stamp; at right the OSS-forged Hitler face version,
turned into a death's head on a "Fallen Reich" stamp Political symbol A
skull was worn as a trophy on the belt of the Lombard king Alboin, it
was a constant grim triumph over his old enemy, and he drank from it. In
the same way a skull is a warning when it decorates the palisade of a
city, or deteriorates on a pike at a Traitor's Gate. The Skull Tower,
with the embedded skulls of Serbian rebels, was built in 1809 on the
highway near Niš, Serbia, as a stark political warning from the Ottoman
government. In this case the skulls are the statement: that the current
owner had the power to kill the former. "Drinking out of a skull the
blood of slain (sacrificial) enemies is mentioned by Ammianus and
Livy,[12] and Solinus describes the Irish custom of bathing the face in
the blood of the slain and drinking it."[13] The rafters of a
traditional Jívaro medicine house in Peru, or in New Guinea.[14] When the skull appears in Nazi SS insignia, the death's-head (Totenkopf) represents loyalty unto death. Humans typically note the skull and crossbones sign as the almost universal symbol for Holidays Skulls
and skeletons are the main symbol of the Day of the Dead, a Mexican
holiday. Skull-shaped decorations called calaveras are a common sight
during the festivities. Skull on a gravestone edge, at Durisdeer Skull on a gravestone edge, Durisdeer Other uses When tattooed on the forearm its apotropaic power is thought to help an outlaw biker cheat death.[15] The
skull that is often engraved or carved on the head of early New England
tombstones might be merely a symbol of mortality, but the skull is also
often backed by an angelic pair of wings, lofting mortality beyond its
own death....Skulls and memento mori, as for example the diamond-studded
skull For the Love of God by Damien Hirst,[16] have become a popular
trend in pop culture....Skulls have been also found on clothing items
for men, women and children.[2] Some sources credited Alexander McQueen
for introducing skulls as a fashion trend with stylized skulls, starting
with skull-decorated bags and scarves. The trend is extant by the early
2010s." (wikipedia.org) " "Memento
mori (Latin for 'remember that you [have to] die'[2]) is an artistic or
symbolic trope acting as a reminder of the inevitability of death.[2]
The concept has its roots in the philosophers of classical antiquity and
Christianity, and appeared in funerary art and architecture from the
medieval period onwards. The most common motif is a skull, often
accompanied by one or more bones. Often this alone is enough to evoke
the trope, but other motifs such as a coffin, hourglass and wilting
flowers signify the impermanence of human life. Often these function
within a work whose main subject is something else, such as a portrait,
but the vanitas is an artistic genre where the theme of death is the
main subject. The Danse Macabre and Death personified with a scythe as
the Grim Reaper are even more direct evocations of the trope. Pronunciation and translation In
English, the phrase is typically pronounced /məˈmɛntoʊ ˈmɔːri/,
mə-MEN-toh MOR-ee. It is reconstructed as ideally pronounced as
something like [mɛˈmɛntoː ˈmɔriː] if spoken by an ancient Roman around
the beginning of the AD era.[citation needed] Memento is the 2nd
person singular active imperative of meminī, 'to remember, to bear in
mind', usually serving as a warning: "remember!" Morī is the present
infinitive of the deponent verb morior 'to die'.[3] In other words, "remember death" or "remember that you die".[4] History of the concept In classical antiquity The
philosopher Democritus trained himself by going into solitude and
frequenting tombs.[5] Plato's Phaedo, where the death of Socrates is
recounted, introduces the idea that the proper practice of philosophy is
"about nothing else but dying and being dead".[6] The Stoics of
classical antiquity were particularly prominent in their use of this
discipline, and Seneca's letters are full of injunctions to meditate on
death.[7] The Stoic Epictetus told his students that when kissing their
child, brother, or friend, they should remind themselves that they are
mortal, curbing their pleasure, as do "those who stand behind men in
their triumphs and remind them that they are mortal".[8] The Stoic
Marcus Aurelius invited the reader (himself) to "consider how ephemeral
and mean all mortal things are" in his Meditations.[9][10] In
some accounts of the Roman triumph, a companion or public slave would
stand behind or near the triumphant general during the procession and
remind him from time to time of his own mortality or prompt him to "look
behind".[11] A version of this warning is often rendered into English
as "Remember, Caesar, thou art mortal", for example in Fahrenheit 451. In Judaism Several
passages in the Old Testament urge a remembrance of death. In Psalm 90,
Moses prays that God would teach his people "to number our days that we
may get a heart of wisdom" (Ps. 90:12). In Ecclesiastes, the Preacher
insists that "It is better to go to the house of mourning than to go to
the house of feasting, for this is the end of all mankind, and the
living will lay it to heart" (Eccl. 7:2). In Isaiah, the lifespan of
human beings is compared to the short lifespan of grass: "The grass
withers, the flower fades when the breath of the LORD blows on it;
surely the people are grass" (Is. 40:7). In early Christianity The
expression memento mori developed with the growth of Christianity,
which emphasized Heaven, Hell, and salvation of the soul in the
afterlife.[12] The 2nd-century Christian writer Tertullian claimed that
during his triumphal procession, a victorious general would have someone
(in later versions, a slave) standing behind him, holding a crown over
his head and whispering "Respice post te. Hominem te memento" ("Look
after you [to the time after your death] and remember you're [only] a
man."). Though in modern times this has become a standard trope, in fact
no other ancient authors confirm this, and it may have been Christian
moralizing rather than an accurate historical report.[13] In Europe from the medieval era to the Victorian era Dance
of Death (replica of 15th-century fresco; National Gallery of
Slovenia); No matter one's station in life, the Dance of Death unites
all. Christian Theology The thought was then utilized in
Christianity, whose strong emphasis on divine judgment, heaven, hell,
and the salvation of the soul brought death to the forefront of
consciousness.[14] In the Christian context, the memento mori acquires a
moralizing purpose quite opposed to the nunc est bibendum (now is the
time to drink) theme of classical antiquity. To the Christian, the
prospect of death serves to emphasize the emptiness and fleetingness of
earthly pleasures, luxuries, and achievements, and thus also as an
invitation to focus one's thoughts on the prospect of the afterlife. A
Biblical injunction often associated with the memento mori in this
context is In omnibus operibus tuis memorare novissima tua, et in
aeternum non peccabis (the Vulgate's Latin rendering of Ecclesiasticus
7:40, "in all thy works be mindful of thy last end and thou wilt never
sin.") This finds ritual expression in the rites of Ash Wednesday, when
ashes are placed upon the worshipers' heads with the words, "Remember
Man that you are dust and unto dust, you shall return." Memento
mori has been an important part of ascetic disciplines as a means of
perfecting the character by cultivating detachment and other virtues,
and by turning the attention towards the immortality of the soul and the
afterlife.[15] Architecture Unshrouded skeleton on Diana Warburton's tomb (dated 1693) in St John the Baptist Church, Chester The
most obvious places to look for memento mori meditations are in funeral
art and architecture. Perhaps the most striking to contemporary minds
is the transi or cadaver tomb, a tomb that depicts the decayed corpse of
the deceased. This became a fashion in the tombs of the wealthy in the
fifteenth century, and surviving examples still offer a stark reminder
of the vanity of earthly riches. Later, Puritan tomb stones in the
colonial United States frequently depicted winged skulls, skeletons, or
angels snuffing out candles. These are among the numerous themes
associated with skull imagery. Another example of memento mori is
provided by the chapels of bones, such as the Capela dos Ossos in Évora
or the Capuchin Crypt in Rome. These are chapels where the walls are
totally or partially covered by human remains, mostly bones. The
entrance to the Capela dos Ossos has the following sentence: "We bones,
lying here bare, await yours." Visual art Philippe de Champaigne's Vanitas (c. 1671) is reduced to three essentials: Life, Death, and Time Timepieces
have been used to illustrate that the time of the living on Earth grows
shorter with each passing minute. Public clocks would be decorated with
mottos such as ultima forsan ("perhaps the last" [hour]) or vulnerant
omnes, ultima necat ("they all wound, and the last kills"). Clocks have
carried the motto tempus fugit, "time flees". Old striking clocks often
sported automata who would appear and strike the hour; some of the
celebrated automaton clocks from Augsburg, Germany, had Death striking
the hour. Private people carried smaller reminders of their own
mortality. Mary, Queen of Scots owned a large watch carved in the form
of a silver skull, embellished with the lines of Horace, "Pale death
knocks with the same tempo upon the huts of the poor and the towers of
Kings." In the late 16th and through the 17th century, memento
mori jewelry was popular. Items included mourning rings,[16] pendants,
lockets, and brooches.[17] These pieces depicted tiny motifs of skulls,
bones, and coffins, in addition to messages and names of the departed,
picked out in precious metals and enamel.[17][18] During the same
period there emerged the artistic genre known as vanitas, Latin for
"emptiness" or "vanity". Especially popular in Holland and then
spreading to other European nations, vanitas paintings typically
represented assemblages of numerous symbolic objects such as human
skulls, guttering candles, wilting flowers, soap bubbles, butterflies,
and hourglasses. In combination, vanitas assemblies conveyed the
impermanence of human endeavours and of the decay that is inevitable
with the passage of time. See also the themes associated with the image
of the skull. Literature Memento mori is also an important
literary theme. Well-known literary meditations on death in English
prose include Sir Thomas Browne's Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and Jeremy
Taylor's Holy Living and Holy Dying. These works were part of a Jacobean
cult of melancholia that marked the end of the Elizabethan era. In the
late eighteenth century, literary elegies were a common genre; Thomas
Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard and Edward Young's Night
Thoughts are typical members of the genre. In the European
devotional literature of the Renaissance, the Ars Moriendi, memento mori
had moral value by reminding individuals of their mortality.[19] Music Apart
from the genre of requiem and funeral music, there is also a rich
tradition of memento mori in the Early Music of Europe. Especially those
facing the ever-present death during the recurring bubonic plague
pandemics from the 1340s onward tried to toughen themselves by
anticipating the inevitable in chants, from the simple Geisslerlieder of
the Flagellant movement to the more refined cloistral or courtly songs.
The lyrics often looked at life as a necessary and god-given vale of
tears with death as a ransom, and they reminded people to lead sinless
lives to stand a chance at Judgment Day. The following two Latin stanzas
(with their English translations) are typical of memento mori in
medieval music; they are from the virelai Ad Mortem Festinamus of the
Llibre Vermell de Montserrat from 1399: Vita brevis breviter in brevi finietur, Mors venit velociter quae neminem veretur, Omnia mors perimit et nulli miseretur. Ad mortem festinamus peccare desistamus. Ni conversus fueris et sicut puer factus Et vitam mutaveris in meliores actus, Intrare non poteris regnum Dei beatus. Ad mortem festinamus peccare desistamus. Life is short, and shortly it will end; Death comes quickly and respects no one, Death destroys everything and takes pity on no one. To death we are hastening, let us refrain from sinning. If you do not turn back and become like a child, And change your life for the better, You will not be able to enter, blessed, the Kingdom of God. To death we are hastening, let us refrain from sinning. Danse macabre The
danse macabre is another well-known example of the memento mori theme,
with its dancing depiction of the Grim Reaper carrying off rich and poor
alike. This and similar depictions of Death decorated many European
churches....The salutation of the Hermits of St. Paul of France Memento
mori was the salutation used by the Hermits of St. Paul of France
(1620–1633), also known as the Brothers of Death.[20] It is sometimes
claimed that the Trappists use this salutation, but this is not
true.[21] In Puritan America Thomas Smith's Self-Portrait Colonial
American art saw a large number of memento mori images due to Puritan
influence. The Puritan community in 17th-century North America looked
down upon art because they believed that it drew the faithful away from
God and, if away from God, then it could only lead to the devil.
However, portraits were considered historical records and, as such, they
were allowed. Thomas Smith, a 17th-century Puritan, fought in many
naval battles and also painted. In his self-portrait, we see these
pursuits represented alongside a typical Puritan memento mori with a
skull, suggesting his awareness of imminent death. The poem underneath the skull emphasizes Thomas Smith's acceptance of death and of turning away from the world of the living:
Why why should I the World be minding, Therein a World of Evils
Finding. Then Farwell World: Farwell thy jarres, thy Joies thy Toies thy
Wiles thy Warrs. Truth Sounds Retreat: I am not sorye. The Eternall
Drawes to him my heart, By Faith (which can thy Force Subvert) To Crowne
me (after Grace) with Glory. Mexico's Day of the Dead Posada's 1910 La Calavera Catrina Main article: Day of the Dead Much
memento mori art is associated with the Mexican festival Day of the
Dead, including skull-shaped candies and bread loaves adorned with bread
"bones". This theme was also famously expressed in the works of
the Mexican engraver José Guadalupe Posada, in which people from various
walks of life are depicted as skeletons. Another manifestation
of memento mori is found in the Mexican "Calavera", a literary
composition in verse form normally written in honour of a person who is
still alive, but written as if that person were dead. These compositions
have a comedic tone and are often offered from one friend to another
during Day of the Dead.[22] Contemporary culture Roman
Krznaric suggests Memento Mori is an important topic to bring back into
our thoughts and belief system; "Philosophers have come up with lots of
what I call 'death tasters' – thought experiments for seizing the day." These
thought experiments are powerful to get us re-oriented back to death
into current awareness and living with spontaneity. Albert Camus stated
"Come to terms with death, thereafter anything is possible." Jean-Paul
Sartre expressed that life is given to us early, and is shortened at the
end, all the while taken away at every step of the way, emphasizing
that the end is only the beginning every day.[23] Similar concepts in other religions and cultures In Buddhism The
Buddhist practice maraṇasati meditates on death. The word is a Pāli
compound of maraṇa 'death' (an Indo-European cognate of Latin mori) and
sati 'awareness', so very close to memento mori. It is first used in
early Buddhist texts, the suttapiṭaka of the Pāli Canon, with parallels
in the āgamas of the "Northern" Schools. In Japanese Zen and samurai culture In
Japan, the influence of Zen Buddhist contemplation of death on
indigenous culture can be gauged by the following quotation from the
classic treatise on samurai ethics, Hagakure:[24] The Way of
the Samurai is, morning after morning, the practice of death,
considering whether it will be here or be there, imagining the most
sightly way of dying, and putting one's mind firmly in death. Although
this may be a most difficult thing, if one will do it, it can be done.
There is nothing that one should suppose cannot be done.[25] In
the annual appreciation of cherry blossom and fall colors, hanami and
momijigari, it was philosophized that things are most splendid at the
moment before their fall, and to aim to live and die in a similar
fashion.[citation needed] In Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Citipati
mask depicting Mahākāla. The skull mask of Citipati is a reminder of the
impermanence of life and the eternal cycle of life and death. In
Tibetan Buddhism, there is a mind training practice known as Lojong.
The initial stages of the classic Lojong begin with 'The Four Thoughts
that Turn the Mind', or, more literally, 'Four Contemplations to Cause a
Revolution in the Mind'.[citation needed] The second of these four is
the contemplation on impermanence and death. In particular, one
contemplates that; All compounded things are impermanent. The human body is a compounded thing. Therefore, death of the body is certain. The time of death is uncertain and beyond our control. There
are a number of classic verse formulations of these contemplations
meant for daily reflection to overcome our strong habitual tendency to
live as though we will certainly not die today. Lalitavistara Sutra The following is from the Lalitavistara Sūtra, a major work in the classical Sanskrit canon: अध्रुवं त्रिभवं शरदभ्रनिभं नटरङ्गसमा जगिर् ऊर्मिच्युती। गिरिनद्यसमं लघुशीघ्रजवं व्रजतायु जगे यथ विद्यु नभे॥ ज्वलितं त्रिभवं जरव्याधिदुखैः मरणाग्निप्रदीप्तमनाथमिदम्। भवनि शरणे सद मूढ जगत् भ्रमती भ्रमरो यथ कुम्भगतो॥ The three worlds are fleeting like autumn clouds. Like a staged performance, beings come and go. In tumultuous waves, rushing by, like rapids over a cliff. Like lightning, wanderers in samsara burst into existence, and are gone in a flash. Beings are ablaze with the sufferings of sickness and old age, And with no defence against the conflagration of Death The bewildered, seeking refuge in worldly existence Spin round and round, like bees trapped in a jar.[26] The Udānavarga A very well known verse in the Pali, Sanskrit and Tibetan canons states [this is from the Sanskrit version, the Udānavarga: सर्वे क्षयान्ता निचयाः पतनान्ताः समुच्छ्रयाः | सम्योगा विप्रयोगान्ता मरणान्तं हि जीवितम् |1,22| All that is acquired will be lost What rises will fall Where there is meeting there will be separation What is born will surely die.[27] Shantideva, Bodhicaryavatara Shantideva, in the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra 'Bodhisattva's Way of Life' reflects at length: कृताकृतापरीक्षोऽयं मृत्युर्विश्रम्भघातकः। स्वस्थास्वस्थैरविश्वास्य आकमिस्मकमहाशनि:॥ २/३४॥ अप्रिया न भविष्यन्ति प्रियो मे न भविष्यति। अहं च न भविष्यामि सर्वं च न भविष्यति॥ २/३७॥ तत्तत्स्मरणताम याति यद्यद्वस्त्वनुभयते। स्वप्नानुभूतवत्सर्वं गतं न पूनरीक्ष्यते॥ २/३६॥ रात्रिन्दिवमविश्राममायुषो वर्धते व्ययः। आयस्य चागमो नास्ति न मरिष्यामि किं न्वहम्॥ २/४० यमदूतैर्गृहीतस्य कुतो बन्धुः कुतः सुह्रत्। पुण्यमेकं तदा त्राणं मया तच्च न सेवितम्॥ २/४१॥ Death does not differentiate between tasks done and undone. This traitor is not to be trusted by the healthy or the ill, for it is like an unexpected, great thunderbolt. BCA 2.33 My enemies will not remain, nor will my friends remain. I shall not remain. Nothing will remain. BCA 2:35 Whatever is experienced will fade to a memory. Like an experience in a dream, everything that has passed will not be seen again. BCA 2:36 Day and night, a life span unceasingly diminishes, and there is no adding onto it. Shall I not die then? BCA 2:39 For a person seized by the messengers of Death, what good is a relative and what good is a friend? At that time, merit alone is a protection, and I have not applied myself to it. BCA 2:41 In more modern Tibetan Buddhist works In
a practice text written by the 19th century Tibetan master Dudjom
Lingpa for serious meditators, he formulates the second contemplation in
this way:[28][29] On this occasion when you have such a
bounty of opportunities in terms of your body, environment, friends,
spiritual mentors, time, and practical instructions, without
procrastinating until tomorrow and the next day, arouse a sense of
urgency, as if a spark landed on your body or a grain of sand fell in
your eye. If you have not swiftly applied yourself to practice, examine
the births and deaths of other beings and reflect again and again on the
unpredictability of your lifespan and the time of your death, and on
the uncertainty of your own situation. Meditate on this until you have
definitively integrated it with your mind... The appearances of this
life, including your surroundings and friends, are like last night's
dream, and this life passes more swiftly than a flash of lightning in
the sky. There is no end to this meaningless work. What a joke to
prepare to live forever! Wherever you are born in the heights or depths
of saṃsāra, the great noose of suffering will hold you tight. Acquiring
freedom for yourself is as rare as a star in the daytime, so how is it
possible to practice and achieve liberation? The root of all mind
training and practical instructions is planted by knowing the nature of
existence. There is no other way. I, an old vagabond, have shaken my
beggar's satchel, and this is what came out. The contemporary Tibetan master, Yangthang Rinpoche, in his short text 'Summary of the View, Meditation, and Conduct':[30] །ཁྱེད་རྙེད་དཀའ་བ་མི་ཡི་ལུས་རྟེན་རྙེད།
།སྐྱེ་དཀའ་བའི་ངེས་འབྱུང་གི་བསམ་པ་སྐྱེས།
།མཇལ་དཀའ་བའི་མཚན་ལྡན་གྱི་བླ་མ་མཇལ། །འཕྲད་དཀའ་བ་དམ་པའི་ཆོས་དང་འཕྲད། འདི་འདྲ་བའི་ལུས་རྟེན་བཟང་པོ་འདི། །ཐོབ་དཀའ་བའི་ཚུལ་ལ་ཡང་ཡང་སོམ། རྙེད་པ་འདི་དོན་ཡོད་མ་བྱས་ན། །འདི་མི་རྟག་རླུང་གསེབ་མར་མེ་འདྲ། ཡུན་རིང་པོའི་བློ་གཏད་འདི་ལ་མེད།
།ཤི་བར་དོར་གྲོལ་བའི་གདེངས་མེད་ན། །ཚེ་ཕྱི་མའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་ཨ་རེ་འཇིགས།
།མཐའ་མེད་པའི་འཁོར་བར་འཁྱམས་དགོས་ཚེ། །འདིའི་རང་བཞིན་བསམ་ན་སེམས་རེ་སྐྱོ། །ཚེ་འདི་ལ་བློ་གདེངས་ཐོབ་པ་ཞིག །ཅི་ནས་ཀྱང་མཛད་རྒྱུ་བཀའ་དྲིན་ཆེ། །འདི་བདག་གིས་ཁྱོད་ལ་རེ་བ་ཡིན། You have obtained a human life, which is difficult to find, Have aroused an intention of a spirit of emergence, which is difficult to arouse, Have met a qualified guru, who is difficult to meet, And you have encountered the sublime Dharma, which is difficult to encounter. Reflect again and again on the difficulty Of obtaining such a fine human life. If you do not make this meaningful, It will be like a butter lamp in the wind of impermanence. Do not count on this lasting a long time. The
Tibetan Canon also includes copious materials on the meditative
preparation for the death process and intermediate period bardo between
death and rebirth. Amongst them are the famous "Tibetan Book of the
Dead", in Tibetan Bardo Thodol, the "Natural Liberation through Hearing
in the Bardo". In Islam The "remembrance of death" (Arabic:
تذكرة الموت, Tadhkirat al-Mawt; deriving from تذكرة, tadhkirah, Arabic
for memorandum or admonition), has been a major topic of Islamic
spirituality since the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in Medina.
It is grounded in the Qur'an, where there are recurring injunctions to
pay heed to the fate of previous generations.[31] The hadith literature,
which preserves the teachings of Muhammad, records advice for believers
to "remember often death, the destroyer of pleasures."[32] Some Sufis
have been called "ahl al-qubur," the "people of the graves," because of
their practice of frequenting graveyards to ponder on mortality and the
vanity of life, based on the teaching of Muhammad to visit graves.[33]
Al-Ghazali devotes to this topic the last book of his "The Revival of
the Religious Sciences".[34] Iceland The Hávamál ("Sayings of
the High One"), a 13th-century Icelandic compilation poetically
attributed to the god Odin, includes two sections – the Gestaþáttr and
the Loddfáfnismál – offering many gnomic proverbs expressing the memento
mori philosophy, most famously Gestaþáttr number 77: Deyr fé, deyja frændur, deyr sjálfur ið sama; ek veit einn at aldri deyr, dómr um dauðan hvern. Animals die, friends die, and thyself, too, shall die; but one thing I know that never dies the tales of the one who died" (wikipedia.org) "A
monumental inscription is an inscription, typically carved in stone, on
a grave marker, cenotaph, memorial plaque, church monument or other
memorial. The purpose of monumental inscriptions is to serve as
memorials to the dead. Those on gravestones are normally placed there by
members of the deceased's family. Those on memorial plaques inside a
religious building are normally placed there by the wider community. The
graves of those killed in wars and other armed conflicts are often
placed together in military cemeteries in the country where the conflict
took place; they are also remembered on war memorials in their own
country. Monumental inscriptions are important to genealogists
and family historians, providing information on the subjects life and
death, including dates. Family connections can sometimes be resolved as
members of the same family may be buried together. Many old
gravestones are now illegible due to weathering, but individuals and
family history societies may have recorded their inscriptions and
published them, either online, on microfiche or in book form. In
England, the Society of Genealogists has a large collection. The
Commonwealth War Graves Commission has an online database of British and
Commonwealth war graves and inscriptions." (wikipedia.org) "An
epitaph (from Ancient Greek ἐπιτάφιος (epitáphios) 'a funeral oration';
from ἐπι- (epi-) 'at, over', and τάφος (táphos) 'tomb')[1][2] is a
short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to
text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used
in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person
themselves before their death, while others are chosen by those
responsible for the burial. An epitaph may be written in prose or in
poem verse. Most epitaphs are brief records of the family, and
perhaps the career, of the deceased, often with a common expression of
love or respect—for example, "beloved father of ..."—but others are more
ambitious. From the Renaissance to the 19th century in Western culture,
epitaphs for notable people became increasingly lengthy and pompous
descriptions of their family origins, career, virtues and immediate
family, often in Latin. Notably, the Laudatio Turiae, the longest known
Ancient Roman epitaph, exceeds almost all of these at 180 lines; it
celebrates the virtues of an honored wife, probably of a
consul.[citation needed] Some are quotes from holy texts, or
aphorisms. One approach of many epitaphs is to "speak" to the reader and
warn them about their own mortality. A wry trick of others is to
request the reader to get off their resting place, inasmuch as the
reader would have to be standing on the ground above the coffin to read
the inscription. Some record achievements (e.g., past politicians note
the years of their terms of office). Nearly all (excepting those where
this is impossible by definition, such as the Tomb of the Unknown
Soldier) note name, year or date of birth, and date of death. Many list
family members and the relationship of the deceased to them (for
example, "Father / Mother / Son / Daughter of").[citation needed] Linguistic distinctions In
English, and in accordance with the word's etymology, the word
"epitaph" refers to a textual commemoration of a person, which may or
may not be inscribed on a monument. In many European languages, however,
the meaning of the word (or its close equivalent) has broadened to mean
the monument itself, specifically a mural monument or plaque erected in
a church, often close to, but not directly over, a person's place of
burial.[3] Examples include German Epitaph; Dutch epitaaf; Hungarian
epitáfium; Polish epitafium; Danish epitafium; Swedish epitafium; and
Estonian epitaaf. History The history of epitaphs extends as
far back as the ancient Egyptians and have differed in delivery.[4] The
ancient Greeks utilised emotive expression, written in elegiac verse,
later in prose.[4] Ancient Romans' use of epitaphs was more blunt and
uniform, typically detailing facts of the deceased – as did the earliest
epitaphs in English churches.[4] "May the earth lie light upon thee"
was a common inscription for them.[4] Due to the influence of Roman
occupiers, the dominant language of epitaphs was Latin, evidenced by the
oldest existing epitaphs in Britain. French and English came into
fashion around the 13th and 14th centuries, respectively.[4] By
the 16th century, epitaphs had become more literary in nature and those
written in verse were involved in trade.[4] In America and Britain,
comedic epitaphs are common in the form of acrostics, palindromes,
riddles, and puns on names and professions – Robert Burns, the most
prolific pre-Romantic epitaphist, wrote 35 pieces, them being largely
satirical.[4][5] The rate of literary epitaphs has been historically
overshadowed by "popular sepulchral inscriptions which are produced in
countless numbers at all time"; "strictly literary" epitaphs were most
present during the start of the Romantic period.[5] The Lake
Poets have been credited with providing success to epitaph-writing
adjacent to that of poetry significance – Robert Southey, in focusing
simultaneously upon transience and eternity, contributed
substantially.[5] General interest for epitaphs was waning at the cusp
of the 19th century, in contrast to a considerable burgeoning
intellectual interest.[5] Critical essays had been published before on
the matter, possibly contributing towards its flourishing in the latter
half of the 18th century.[5] Epitaphs never became a major poetic form
and, according to Romantic scholar Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch, they had
"virtually disappeared" by 1810. "The art of the epitaph was largely
lost in the 20th century", wrote the Encyclopedia Britannica.[4][5] Format Sarcophagi
and coffins were the choice of ancient Egyptians for epitaphs; brasses
was the prominent format for a significant period of time.[4] Epitaphs
upon stone monuments became a common feature by the Elizabethan era.[4] In England Medieval era Stock phrases or standard elements present in epitaphs on mediaeval church monuments and ledger stones in England include: Hic jacet.. (here lies...)
... cuius animae propitietur deus amen (generally abbreviated to cuius
aie ppitiet ds ame with tildes indicating the omitted letters) ("whose
soul may God look upon with favour Amen") Memoriae sacrum ... / MS ("Sacred to the memory (of) ...") Modern era Requiescat in pace / RIP ("may he rest in peace")...Poets, playwrights and other writers While you live, shine have no grief at all life exists only for a short while and Time demands his due. — Seikilos epitaph (oldest surviving complete musical composition)[6] This is my father's crime against me, which I myself committed against none. — Al-Ma'arri[7] Good frend for İesvs sake forebeare, To digg the dvst encloased heare. Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones, And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones. (In modern spelling): Good friend, for Jesus's sake forbear To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. — William Shakespeare[8] Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water — John Keats Cast a cold eye On life, on death. Horseman, pass by! — W. B. Yeats, Under Ben Bulben Heroes and Kings your distance keep; In peace let one poor poet sleep, Who never flattered folks like you; Let Horace blush and Virgil too. — Alexander Pope[9] Sleep after toyle, port after stormie seas, Ease after warre, death after life, does greatly please. — Joseph Conrad, in Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene Homo sum! the adventurer — D. H. Lawrence Against you I will fling myself, unvanquished and unyielding, O Death! — Virginia Woolf[10] Statesmen Oh God (Devanagari: हे राम) — Mahatma Gandhi Mathematicians I've finally stopped getting dumber. (Hungarian: Végre nem butulok tovább.) — Paul Erdős[11] We must know. We will know. (German: Wir müssen wissen. Wir werden wissen.) — David Hilbert[12] Soldiers Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by that here, obedient to their law, we lie. — Simonides's epigram honoring the 300 at Thermopylae Here sleeps at peace a Hampshire Grenadier Who caught his early death by drinking cold small beer. Soldiers, be wise at his untimely fall, And when you're hot, drink strong or none at all. — Thomas Thetcher tombstone epitaph in Winchester Cathedral To save your world you asked this man to die: Would this man, could he see you now, ask why? — Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier, written by W. H. Auden[13] When you go home, tell them of us and say, For your tomorrow, we gave our today — The Kohima Epitaph by John Maxwell Edmonds There is borne an empty hearse covered over for such as appear not. Heroes have the whole earth for their tomb. — Unknown Soldier's epitaph, Athens; passages taken from Pericles' Funeral Oration[14][15] Entertainers And the beat goes on. — Sonny Bono That's all folks! — Mel Blanc I told you I was ill. (Irish: Dúirt mé leat go raibh mé breoite.) — Spike Milligan[16] Activists Free at last, Free at last, Thank God Almighty I'm Free at last. — Martin Luther King, Jr. Other He never killed a man that did not need killing. — Gunfighter Clay Allison...In music In
a more figurative sense, the term may be used for music composed in
memory of the deceased. Igor Stravinsky composed in 1958 Epitaphium for
flute, clarinet and harp. In 1967 Krzysztof Meyer called his Symphony
No. 2 for choir and orchestra Epitaphium Stanisław Wiechowicz in
memoriam. Jeffrey Lewis composed Epitaphium – Children of the Sun for
narrator, chamber choir, piano, flute, clarinet and percussion. In 1969,
King Crimson released the song Epitaph, giving a reference to epitaphs
within the song. Bronius Kutavičius composed in 1998 Epitaphium temporum
pereunti. Valentin Silvestrov composed in 1999 Epitaph L.B. (Епітафія
Л.Б.) for viola (or cello) and piano. In 2007 Graham Waterhouse composed
Epitaphium for string trio as a tribute to the memory of his father
William Waterhouse. The South African poet Gert Vlok Nel wrote an
(originally) untitled song, which appeared on his first music album
"Beaufort-Wes se Beautiful Woorde" as "Epitaph", because his producer
Eckard Potgieter told him that the song sounded like an epitaph. David
Bowie's final album, Blackstar, released in 2016, is generally seen as
his musical epitaph, with singles "Blackstar" and "Lazarus" often
singled out." (wikipedia.org) "A
cemetery, burial ground, gravesite, graveyard, or a green space called a
memorial park, is a place where the remains of dead people are buried
or otherwise interred. The word cemetery (from Greek κοιμητήριον
'sleeping place')[1][2] implies that the land is specifically designated
as a burial ground and originally applied to the Roman catacombs.[3]
The term graveyard is often used interchangeably with cemetery, but a
graveyard primarily refers to a burial ground within a churchyard.[4][5] The
intact or cremated remains of people may be interred in a grave,
commonly referred to as burial, or in a tomb, an "above-ground grave"
(resembling a sarcophagus), a mausoleum, columbarium, niche, or other
edifice. In Western cultures, funeral ceremonies are often observed in
cemeteries. These ceremonies or rites of passage differ according to
cultural practices and religious beliefs. Modern cemeteries often
include crematoria, and some grounds previously used for both, continue
as crematoria as a principal use long after the interment areas have
been filled. ...Modernity Cemetery overlooking the Danube, near Cernavodă, Romania Starting
in the early 19th century, the burial of the dead in graveyards began
to be discontinued, due to rapid population growth in the early stages
of the Industrial Revolution, continued outbreaks of infectious disease
near graveyards and the increasingly limited space in graveyards for new
interments. In many European states, burial in graveyards was
eventually outlawed altogether through legislation. Instead of
graveyards, completely new places of burial were established away from
heavily populated areas and outside of old towns and city centers. Many
new cemeteries became municipally owned or were run by their own
corporations, and thus independent from churches and their churchyards. In
some cases, skeletons were exhumed from graveyards and moved into
ossuaries or catacombs. A large action of this type occurred in 18th
century Paris when human remains were transferred from graveyards all
over the city to the Catacombs of Paris. The bones of an estimated 6
million people are to be found there.[7] An early example of a
landscape-style cemetery is Père Lachaise in Paris. This embodied the
idea of state- rather than church-controlled burial, a concept that
spread through the continent of Europe with the Napoleonic invasions.
This could include the opening of cemeteries by private or joint stock
companies. The shift to municipal cemeteries or those established by
private companies was usually accompanied by the establishing of
landscaped burial grounds outside the city (e.g. extramural). John Claudius Loudon, one of the first professional cemetery designers. In
Britain the movement was driven by dissenters and public health
concerns. The Rosary Cemetery in Norwich was opened in 1819 as a burial
ground for all religious backgrounds. Similar private non-denominational
cemeteries were established near industrialising towns with growing
populations, such as Manchester (1821) and Liverpool (1825). Each
cemetery required a separate Act of Parliament for authorisation,
although the capital was raised through the formation of joint-stock
companies. In the first 50 years of the 19th century the
population of London more than doubled from 1 million to 2.3 million.
The small parish churchyards were rapidly becoming dangerously
overcrowded, and decaying matter infiltrating the water supply was
causing epidemics. The issue became particularly acute after the cholera
epidemic of 1831, which killed 52,000 people in Britain alone, putting
unprecedented pressure on the country's burial capacity. Concerns were
also raised about the potential public health hazard arising from the
inhalation of gases generated from human putrefaction under the then
prevailing miasma theory of disease. Legislative action was slow
in coming, but in 1832 Parliament finally acknowledged the need for the
establishment of large municipal cemeteries and encouraged their
construction outside London. The same bill also closed all inner London
churchyards to new deposits. The Magnificent Seven, seven large
cemeteries around London, were established in the following decade,
starting with Kensal Green in 1832.[8] Urban planner and author
John Claudius Loudon was one of the first professional cemetery
designers, and his book On the Laying Out, Planting and Managing of
Cemeteries (1843) was very influential on designers and architects of
the period. Loudon himself designed three cemeteries – Bath Abbey
Cemetery, Histon Road Cemetery, Cambridge, and Southampton Old
Cemetery.[9] The Metropolitan Burial Act of 1852 legislated for
the establishment of the first national system of government-funded
municipal cemeteries across the country, opening the way for a massive
expansion of burial facilities throughout the late 19th century.[10] In
the United States, rural cemeteries became recreational areas in a time
before public parks, hosting events from casual picnics to hunts and
carriage races.[11][12] Types There are a number of different
styles of cemetery in use. Many cemeteries have areas based on different
styles, reflecting the diversity of cultural practices around death and
how it changes over time. Urban The urban cemetery is a
burial ground located in the interior of a village, town, or city. Early
urban cemeteries were churchyards, which filled quickly and exhibited a
haphazard placement of burial markers as sextons tried to squeeze new
burials into the remaining space. As new burying grounds were
established in urban areas to compensate, burial plots were often laid
out in a grid to replace the chaotic appearance of the churchyard.[14]
Urban cemeteries developed over time into a more landscaped form as part
of civic development of beliefs and institutions that sought to portray
the city as civilized and harmonious.[15] Urban cemeteries were
more sanitary (a place to safely dispose of decomposing corpses) than
they were aesthetically pleasing. Corpses were usually buried wrapped in
cloth, since coffins, burial vaults, and above-ground crypts inhibited
the process of decomposition.[16] Nonetheless, urban cemeteries which
were heavily used were often very unhealthy. Receiving vaults and crypts
often needed to be aired before entering, as decomposing corpses used
up so much oxygen that even candles could not remain lit.[17] The sheer
stench from decomposing corpses, even when buried deeply, was
overpowering in areas adjacent to the urban cemetery.[18][19]
Decomposition of the human body releases significant pathogenic
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses which can cause disease and
illness, and many urban cemeteries were located without consideration
for local groundwater. Modern burials in urban cemeteries also release Urban
cemeteries relied heavily on the fact that the soft parts of the body
would decompose in about 25 years (although, in moist soil,
decomposition can take up to 70 years).[21] If room for new burials was
needed, older bones could be dug up and interred elsewhere (such as in
an ossuary) to make space for new interments.[16] It was not uncommon in
some places, such as England, for fresher corpses to be chopped up to
aid decomposition, and for bones to be burned to create fertilizer.[22]
The re-use of graves allowed for a steady stream of income, which
enabled the cemetery to remain well-maintained and in good repair.[23]
Not all urban cemeteries engaged in re-use of graves, and cultural
taboos often prevented it. Many urban cemeteries have fallen into
disrepair and become overgrown, as they lacked endowments to fund
perpetual care. Many urban cemeteries today are thus home to wildlife,
birds, and plants which cannot be found anywhere else in the urban area,
and many urban cemeteries in the late 20th century touted their role as
an environmental refuge.[24][25] Many urban cemeteries are
characterized by multiple burials in the same grave. Multiple burials is
a consequence of the limited size of the urban cemetery, which cannot
easily expand due to adjacent building development. It was not uncommon
for an urban cemetery to begin adding soil to the top of the cemetery to
create new burial space....A monumental cemetery is the traditional
style of cemetery where headstones or other monuments made of marble,
granite or similar materials rise vertically above the ground (typically
around 50 cm but some can be over 2 metres high). Often the entire
grave is covered by a slab, commonly concrete, but it can be more
expensive materials such as marble or granite, and/or has its boundaries
delimited by a fence which may be made of concrete, cast iron or
timber. Where a number of family members are buried together (either
vertically or horizontally), the slab or boundaries may encompass a
number of graves. Monumental cemeteries are often regarded as
unsightly due to the random collection of monuments and headstones they
contain. Also, as maintenance of the headstones is the responsibility of
family members (in the absence of a proscribed Perpetual Care and
Maintenance Fund), over time many headstones are forgotten about and
decay and become damaged. For cemetery authorities, monumental
cemeteries are difficult to maintain. While cemeteries often have
grassed areas between graves, the layout of graves makes it difficult to
use modern equipment such as ride-on lawn mowers in the cemetery. Often
the maintenance of grass must be done by more labour-intensive (and
therefore expensive) methods. In order to reduce the labour cost,
devices such as string trimmers are increasingly used in cemetery
maintenance,[citation needed] but such devices can damage the monuments
and headstones. Cemetery authorities dislike the criticism they receive
for the deteriorating condition of the headstones, arguing that they
have no responsibility for the upkeep of headstones, and typically
disregard their own maintenance practices as being one of the causes of
that deterioration.[citation needed] Rural or garden Main article: Rural cemetery The
rural cemetery or garden cemetery[26] is a style of burial ground that
uses landscaping in a park-like setting. It was conceived in 1711 by the
British architect Sir Christopher Wren, who advocated the creation of
landscaped burial grounds which featured well-planned walkways which
gave extensive access to graves and planned plantings of trees, bushes,
and flowers.[27] Wren's idea was not immediately accepted. But by the
early 1800s, existing churchyards were growing overcrowded and
unhealthy, with graves stacked upon each other or emptied and reused for
new burials.[28] As a reaction to this, the first "garden" cemetery –
Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris – opened in 1804.[29] Because these
cemeteries were usually on the outskirts of town (where land was
plentiful and cheap), they were called "rural cemeteries", a term still
used to describe them today.[28] The concept quickly spread across
Europe.[30] 1:06 Merry Cemetery, Romania Garden/rural
cemeteries were not necessarily outside city limits. When land within a
city could be found, the cemetery was enclosed with a wall to give it a
garden-like quality. These cemeteries were often not sectarian, nor
co-located with a house of worship. Inspired by the English landscape
garden movement,[31] they often looked like attractive parks. The first
garden/rural cemetery in the United States was Mount Auburn Cemetery
near Boston, Massachusetts, founded by the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society in 1831.[32] Following the establishment of Mount Auburn, dozens
of other "rural" cemeteries were established in the United States –
perhaps in part because of Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story's
dedication address – and there were dozens of dedication addresses,[33]
including the famous Gettysburg Address of President Abraham Lincoln. The
cost of building a garden/rural cemetery often meant that only the
wealthy could afford burial there.[34] Subsequently, garden/rural
cemeteries often feature above-ground monuments and memorials,
mausoleums, and columbaria. The excessive filling of rural/garden
cemeteries with elaborate above-ground memorials, many of dubious
artistic quality or taste, created a backlash which led to the
development of the lawn cemetery.[35] Lawn cemetery In a
review of British burial and death practises, Julie Rugg wrote that
there were "four closely interlinked factors that explain the
'invention' and widespread adoption of the lawn cemetery: the
deterioration of the Victorian cemetery; a self-conscious rejection of
Victorian aesthetics in favour of modern alternatives; resource
difficulties that, particularly after World War II, increasingly
constrained what might be achieved in terms of cemetery maintenance; and
growing professionalism in the field of cemetery management."[36] Typically,
lawn cemeteries comprise a number of graves in a lawn setting with
trees and gardens on the perimeter. Adolph Strauch introduced this style
in 1855 in Cincinnati.[37] While aesthetic appeal to family members has
been the primary driver for the development of lawn cemeteries,
cemetery authorities initially welcomed this new style of cemetery
enthusiastically, expecting easier maintenance. Selecting (or grading)
the land intended for a lawn cemetery so that it is completely flat
allows the use of large efficient mowers (such as ride-on mowers or lawn
tractors) - the plaques (being horizontally set in the ground) lie
below the level of the blades and are not damaged by the blades. In
practice, while families are often initially attracted to the
uncluttered appearance of a lawn cemetery, the common practice of
placing flowers (sometimes in vases) and increasingly other items (e.g.
small toys on children's graves) re-introduces some clutter to the
cemetery and makes it difficult to use the larger mowers. While cemetery
authorities increasingly impose restrictions on the nature and type of
objects that can be placed on lawn graves and actively remove prohibited
items, grieving families are often unwilling to comply with these
restrictions and become very upset if the items are removed. Another
problem with lawn cemeteries involves grass over-growth over time: the
grass can grow over and cover the plaque, to the distress of families
who can no longer easily locate the grave. Grasses that propagate by an
above-ground stolon (runner) can cover a plaque very quickly. Grasses
that propagate by a below-ground rhizome tend not to cover the plaque as
easily....The lawn beam cemetery, a recent development, seeks to solve
the problems of the lawn cemetery while retaining many of its benefits.
Low (10–15 cm) raised concrete slabs (beams) are placed across the
cemetery. Commemorative plaques (usually standardised in terms of size
and materials similar to lawn cemeteries) stand on these beams adjacent
to each grave. As in a lawn cemetery, grass grows over the graves
themselves. The areas between the beams are wide enough to permit easy
mowing with a larger mower. As the mower blades are set lower than the
top of the beam and the mowers do not go over the beam, the blades
cannot damage the plaques. Up on the beam, the plaques cannot be easily
overgrown by grass, and spaces between the plaques permit families to
place flowers and other objects out of reach of the mowing. Natural See also: Environmental impact of conventional burial and Natural burial A
natural cemetery, eco-cemetery, green cemetery or conservation
cemetery, is a new style of cemetery as an area set aside for natural
burials (with or without coffins). Natural burials are motivated by a
desire to be environmentally conscious with the body rapidly decomposing
and becoming part of the natural environment without incurring the
environmental cost of traditional burials. Certifications may be granted
for various levels of green burial. Green burial certifications are
issued in a tiered system reflecting level of natural burial practice.
Green burial certification standards designate a cemetery as Hybrid,
Natural, or Conservation Burial Grounds. Many scientists have
argued that natural burials would be a highly efficient use of land if
designed specifically to save endangered habitats, ecosystems and
species.[38] The opposite has also been proposed. Instead of
letting natural burials permanently protect wild landscapes, others have
argued that the rapid decomposition of a natural burial, in principle,
allows for the quick re-use of grave sites in comparison with
conventional burials. However, it is unclear if reusing cemetery land
will be culturally acceptable to most people. In keeping with the
intention of "returning to nature" and the early re-use potential,
natural cemeteries do not normally have conventional grave markings such
as headstones. Instead, exact GPS recordings and or the placing of a
tree, bush or rock often marks the location of the dead, so grieving
family and friends can visit the precise location of a grave. ... Flowers In
Western countries, and many others,[quantify] visitors to graves
commonly leave cut flowers, especially during major holidays and on
birthdays or relevant anniversaries. Cemeteries usually dispose of these
flowers after a few weeks in order to keep the space maintained. Some
companies offer perpetual flower services, to ensure a grave is always
decorated with fresh flowers.[45] Flowers may often be planted on the
grave as well, usually immediately in front of the gravestone. For this
purpose roses are highly common. In some regions flowers are put out at specific times called Decoration Days. Stones Visitors
to loved ones interred in Jewish cemeteries often leave a small stone
on the top of the headstone. There are prayers said at the gravesite,
and the stone is left on the visitor's departure. It is done as a show
of respect; as a general rule, flowers are not placed at Jewish graves.
Flowers are fleeting; the symbology inherent in the use of a stone is to
show that the love, honor, memories, and soul of the loved one are
eternal. This practice is seen in the closing scene of the film
Schindler's List, although in that case it is not on a Jewish grave. Crosses War
graves will commonly have small timber remembrance crosses left with a
red poppy attached to its centre. These will often have messages written
on the cross. More formal visits will often leave a poppy wreath.
Jewish war graves are sometimes marked by a timber Star of David. Candles Placing
burning grave candles on the cemetery to commemorate the dead is a very
common tradition in Catholic nations, for example, Poland. It is mostly
practised on All Souls' Day. The traditional grave candles are called
znicz in Polish.[46] A similar practice of grave candles is also used in
Eastern Orthodox Christian nations, as well as the Lutheran Christian
Nordic countries. Toys In the American South, graves of
children are often decorated with emblems of childhood. These include
favorite toys, balloons, seasonal decorations, religious figurines, and
more.[47] Contemporary management Traditionally cemetery
management only involves the allocation of land for burial, the digging
and filling of graves, and the maintenance of the grounds and
landscaping. The construction and maintenance of headstones and other
grave monuments are usually the responsibilities of surviving families
and friends. However, increasingly, many people regard the resultant
collection of individual headstones, concrete slabs and fences (some of
which may be decayed or damaged) to be aesthetically unappealing,
leading to new cemetery developments either standardising the shape or
design of headstones or plaques, sometimes by providing a standard
shaped marker as part of the service provided by the cemetery. Grave digging Cemetery
authorities normally employ a full-time staff of caretakers to dig
graves. The term "gravedigger" is still used in casual speech, though
many cemeteries have adopted the term "caretaker", since their duties
often involve maintenance of the cemetery grounds and facilities. The
employment of skilled personnel for the preparation of graves is done
not only to ensure the grave is dug in the correct location and at the
correct depth, but also to relieve families from having to dig the grave
for a recently dead relative, and as a matter of public safety, in
order to prevent inexperienced visitors from injuring themselves, to
ensure unused graves are properly covered, and to avoid legal liability
that would result from an injury related to an improperly dug or
uncovered grave. Preparation of the grave is usually done before the
mourners arrive for the burial. The cemetery caretakers fill the grave
after the burial, generally after the mourners have departed. Mechanical
equipment, such as backhoes, are used to reduce labour cost of digging
and filling, but some hand shovelling may still be required. In
the United Kingdom the minimum depth from the surface to the highest lid
is 36 inches (91 cm). There must be 6 inches (15 cm) between each
coffin, which on average is 15 inches (38 cm) high. If the soil is
free-draining and porous, only 24 inches (61 cm) of soil on top is
required. Coffins may be interred at lesser depths or even above ground
as long as they are encased in a concrete chamber.[48] Before 1977,
double graves were dug to 8 feet (240 cm) and singles to 6 feet (180
cm). As a single grave is now dug to 54 inches (140 cm), old cemeteries
contain many areas where new single graves can be dug on "old ground".
This is considered a valid method of resource management and provides
income to keep older cemeteries viable, thus forestalling the need for
permanent closure, which would result in a reduction of their work
force. Cemetery key The key is a central element of
Christianity.[49] Keys of death and hell as a metaphor and synonym for
these often stands the cemetery key. - "Christ says: I was dead, and
behold, I am alive from eternity to eternity, and have the keys of death
and hell." (Revelation 1:18). Peter is given privilege to allow
different groups to enter the Kingdom of Heaven. He gets three keys that
he uses. (Acts 2:37, 38; 8:14-17; 10:44-48) Today it is also integrated
in many games as the "graveyard key holder"....n many countries,
cemeteries are places believed to hold both superstition and legend
characteristics, being used, usually at night times, as an altar in
supposed black magic ceremonies or similarly clandestine happenings,
such as devil worshipping, grave-robbing (gold teeth and jewelry are
preferred), thrilling sex encounters, or drug and alcohol abuse not
related to the cemetery aura. The legend of zombies, as
romanticized by Wade Davis in The Serpent and the Rainbow, is not
exceptional among cemetery myths, as cemeteries are believed to be
places where witches and sorcerers get skulls and bones needed for their
sinister rituals. In the Afro-Brazilian urban mythos (such as
Umbanda), there is a character loosely related to cemeteries and its
aura: the Zé Pilintra (in fact, Zé Pilintra is more related to
bohemianism and night life than with cemeteries, where the reigning
entity is Exu Caveira or Exu Cemitério, similar to Voodoo Baron
Samedi)." (wikipedia.org) "A
crypt (from Greek κρύπτη (krypte) crypta "vault") is a stone chamber
beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains
coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics. Originally, crypts were
typically found below the main apse of a church, such as at the Abbey
of Saint-Germain en Auxerre, but were later located beneath chancel,
naves and transepts as well. Occasionally churches were raised high to
accommodate a crypt at the ground level, such as St Michael's Church in
Hildesheim, Germany. Etymology The word "crypt" developed as
an alternative form of the Latin "vault" as it was carried over into
Late Latin, and came to refer to the ritual rooms found underneath
church buildings. It also served as a vault for storing important and/or
sacred items. The word "crypta", however, is also the female
form of crypto "hidden". The earliest known origin of both is in the
Ancient Greek κρύπτω, the first person singular indicative of the verb
"to conceal, to hide"." (wikipedia.org) "A
stone slab is a big stone, flat and relatively thin, often of
rectangular or almost rectangular form. They are generally used for
paving floors, for covering walls or as headstones....Grave slabs Main article: Ledger stone From
prehistoric times there have been examples of graves covered with a
stone slab, in its natural state or carved. This use of slabs as
tombstone has extended the concept of natural slab to the tombstone
variant: flat, thin and polished. An instance is the slab in the tomb of
King Pere el Gran of Aragon, which weighs 900 kg.[8] Such
tombstones usually have inscriptions. This traditionally includes the
name of the deceased, date of birth and/or death. The inscriptions are
generally on a frontal side but also in some cases in the verso (on the
top side) and around the edges. Some families commission or make an
inscription on the underside. Some also have epitaphs: in praise
(eulogies); citations of religious texts, such as "Requiescat in pace";
sentiments or quotations.[9] A pyramidal or "hipped" stone slab,
sometimes surmounting another base or fuller sarcophagus is a design
seen across all continents as most organic debris will fall off of this
and overgrowth from moss, grass and akin lowest-level plants. Examples
are the graves of Sir John Whittaker Ellis and of the 1st Baron
Cozens-Hardy." (wikipedia.org) "A coffin is a funerary box used for viewing or keeping a corpse, either for burial or cremation. Coffins
are sometimes referred to as a casket, particularly in American
English. Any box in which the dead are buried is a coffin, and while a
casket was originally regarded as a box for jewelry, use of the word
"casket" in this sense began as a euphemism introduced by the
undertaker's trade.[1] A distinction is commonly drawn between "coffins"
and "caskets", using "coffin" to refer to a tapered hexagonal or
octagonal (also considered to be anthropoidal in shape) box and "casket"
to refer to a rectangular box, often with a split lid used for viewing
the deceased as seen in the picture.[2] Receptacles for cremated and
cremulated human ashes (sometimes called cremains)[3][4] are called
urns. Etymology First attested in English in 1380,[citation
needed] the word coffin derives from the Old French cofin, from Latin
cophinus, which means basket,[5] which is the latinisation of the Greek
κόφινος (kophinos), basket.[6] The earliest attested form of the word is
the Mycenaean Greek ko-pi-na, written in Linear B syllabic script.[7] The modern French form, couffin, means cradle....Practices A
coffin may be buried in the ground directly, placed in a burial vault
or cremated. Alternatively it may be entombed above ground in a
mausoleum, a chapel, a church, or in a loculus within catacombs. Some
countries practice one form almost exclusively, whereas in others it may
depend on the individual cemetery. In part of Sumatra,
Indonesia, ancestors are revered and bodies were often kept in coffins
kept alongside the longhouses until a ritual burial could be performed.
The dead are also disinterred for rituals. Mass burials are also
practiced. In northern Sulawesi, some dead were kept in above ground
sarcophagi called waruga until the practice was banned by the Dutch in
the 19th century. The handles and other ornaments (such as doves,
stipple crosses, crucifix, symbols etc.) that go on the outside of a
coffin are called fittings (sometimes called 'coffin furniture' – not to
be confused with furniture that is coffin shaped) while organizing the
inside of the coffin with fabric of some kind is known as "trimming the
coffin". Cultures that practice burial have widely different
styles of coffins. In Judaism, the coffin must be plain, made of wood
and contain no metal parts or adornments. These coffins use wooden pegs
instead of nails. All Jews are buried in the same plain cloth shroud
from shoulder to knees, regardless of status in life, gender or age. In
China, coffins made from the scented, decay-resistant wood of cypress,
sugi, thuja and incense-cedar are in high demand. Certain Aboriginal
Australian groups use intricately decorated tree-bark cylinders sewn
with fibre and sealed with adhesive as coffins. The cylinder is packed
with dried grasses.[14] Sometimes coffins are constructed to
permanently display the corpse, as in the case of the glass-covered
coffin of the Haraldskær Woman on display in the Church of Saint Nicolai
in Vejle, Denmark or the glass-coffin of Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong,
which are in Red Square, Moscow and Tiananmen Square, Beijing,
respectively. When a coffin is used to transport a deceased
person, it can also be called a pall, a term that also refers to the
cloth used to cover the coffin while those who carry a casket are the
pallbearers....Coffins are traditionally made with six sides plus the
top (lid) and bottom, tapered around the shoulders, or rectangular with
four sides.[15] Another form of four-sided coffin is trapezoidal (also
known as the "wedge" form) and is considered a variant of the six-sided
hexagonal kind of coffin.[16] Continental Europe at one time favoured
the rectangular coffin or casket, although variations exist in size and
shape. The rectangular form, and also the trapezoidal form, is still
regularly used in Germany, Austria, Hungary and other parts of Eastern
and Central Europe, with the lid sometimes made to slope gently from the
head down towards the foot. Coffins in the UK are mainly similar to the
hexagonal design, but with one-piece sides, curved at the shoulder
instead of having a join. In Medieval Japan, round coffins were used,
which resembled barrels in shape and were usually made by coopers. In
the case of a death at sea, there have been instances where trunks have
been pressed into use as coffins. Coffins usually have handles on the
side so they will be easier to carry. They may incorporate
features that claim to protect the body or for public health reasons.
For example, some may offer a protective casket that uses a gasket to
seal the casket shut after it is closed for the final time. In England,
it has long been law[17] that a coffin for interment above ground should
be sealed; this was traditionally implemented as a wooden outer coffin
around a lead lining, around a third inner shell. After some decades
have passed, the lead may ripple and tear. In the United States,
numerous cemeteries require a vault of some kind in order to bury the
deceased. A burial vault serves as an outer enclosure for buried remains
and the coffin serves as an inner enclosure. The primary purpose of the
vault is to prevent collapse of the coffin due to the weight of the
soil above. Some manufacturers offer a warranty on the structural
integrity of the coffin. However, no coffin, regardless of its
construction material (e.g., metal rather than wood), whether or not it
is sealed, and whether or not the deceased was embalmed beforehand, will
perfectly preserve the body. In some cases, a sealed coffin may
actually speed up rather than slow down the process of decomposition. An
airtight coffin, for example, fosters decomposition by anaerobic
bacteria, which results in a putrefied liquefaction of the body, and all
putrefied tissue remains inside the container, only to be exposed in
the event of an exhumation. A container that allows air to pass in and
out, such as a simple wooden box, allows for clean skeletonization.
However the situation will vary according to soil or air conditions, and
climate. Coffins are made of many materials, including steel,
various types of wood, and other materials such as fiberglass or
recycled kraft paper. There is emerging interest in eco-friendly coffins
made of purely natural materials such as bamboo, X-Board, willow or
banana leaf.[18] In the latter part of the 19th century and the early
part of the 20th century in the United States, glass coffins were widely
sold by travelling salesmen, who also would try to sell stock of the
companies making the coffins.[19] Custom coffins are occasionally
created and some companies also make set ranges with non-traditional
designs. These include printing or painting of peaceful tropical scenes,
sea-shells, sunsets, cherubim, and patriotic flags. Some manufacturers
have designed them to look like gym carry bags, guitar cases, cigar
humidors, and even yellow dumpster bins. Other coffins are left
deliberately blank so that friends and family can inscribe final wishes
and thoughts upon them to the deceased. In Taiwan, coffins made of
crushed oyster shells[20] were used in the 18th and 19th
centuries.[citation needed] In the 1990s, the rock group Kiss released a
customized Kiss Kasket, which featured their trademark makeup designs
and KISS logo and could also be used as a cooler. Pantera guitarist
Dimebag Darrell was buried in one." (wikipedia.org) "A
grave is a location where a dead body (typically that of a human,
although sometimes that of an animal) is buried or interred after a
funeral. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the
purpose of burial, such as graveyards or cemeteries.[1] Certain
details of a grave, such as the state of the body found within it and
any objects found with the body, may provide information for
archaeologists about how the body may have lived before its death,
including the time period in which it lived and the culture that it had
been a part of. In some religions, it is believed that the body
must be burned or cremated for the soul to survive; in others, the
complete decomposition of the body is considered to be important for the
rest of the soul (see bereavement). Description The formal use of a grave involves several steps with associated terminology. Grave cut The
excavation that forms the grave.[2] Excavations vary from a shallow
scraping to removal of topsoil to a depth of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more
where a vault or burial chamber is to be constructed. However, most
modern graves in the United States are only 4 feet (1.2 m) deep as the
casket is placed into a concrete box (see burial vault) to prevent a
sinkhole, to ensure the grave is strong enough to be driven over, and to
prevent floating in the instance of a flood. Excavated soil The
material dug up when the grave is excavated. It is often piled up close
to the grave for backfilling and then returned to the grave to cover
it. As soil decompresses when excavated and space is occupied by the
burial not all the volume of soil fits back in the hole, so often
evidence is found of remaining soil. In cemeteries, this may end up as a
thick layer of soil overlying the original ground surface. Burial or interment The
body may be placed in a coffin or other container, in a wide range of
positions, by itself or in a multiple burial, with or without personal
possessions of the deceased. Burial vault A vault is a
structure built within the grave to receive the body. It may be used to
prevent crushing of the remains, allow for multiple burials such as a
family vault, retrieval of remains for transfer to an ossuary, or
because it forms a monument. Grave backfill The soil
returned to the grave cut following burial. This material may contain
artifacts derived from the original excavation and prior site use,
deliberately placed goods or artifacts, or later material. The fill may
be left level with the ground or mounded. Monument or marker Headstones
are best known, but they can be supplemented by decorative edging,
footstones, posts to support items, a solid covering or other options. Graveyards and cemeteries Further information: Cemetery Graveyards
were usually established at the same time as the building of the
relevant place of worship (which can date back to the 8th to 14th
centuries) and were often used by those families who could not afford to
be buried inside or beneath the place of worship itself. In most
cultures those who were vastly rich, had important professions, were
part of the nobility or were of any other high social status were
usually buried in individual crypts inside or beneath the relevant place
of worship with an indication of the name of the deceased, date of
death and other biographical data. In Europe, this was often accompanied
by a depiction of their family coat of arms. Later, graveyards have been replaced by cemeteries. In language
Turn in one's grave is an idiom to describe an extreme level of shock
or an intense level of surprise and is expressed as the vicarious
sentiment of a deceased person." (wikipedia.org) "Vanitas
(Latin for 'vanity') is a genre of art which uses symbolism to show the
transience of life, the futility of pleasure, and the certainty of
death. The paintings involved still life imagery of transitory items.
The genre began in the 16th century and continued into the 17th century.
Vanitas art is a type of allegorical art representing a higher ideal. Etymology The
word vanitas comes from Latin and means vanity. Vanity is referenced in
the Bible's Old Testament in Ecclesiastes 12:8, "Vanity of Vanities,
saith the preacher, all is vanity". The message is that human action is
temporary and faith is forever.[1] Vanitas is a sub-genre of
still life painting which Dutch painters during the Baroque period
(c.1585–1730) employed.[2] The Spanish painters also created vanitas
paintings which coincided with the end of the Spanish Golden Age.
Memento mori is a similar theme which when translated from Latin means,
"remember that you will die."[3] History A group of painters
in Leiden began to produce vanitas paintings beginning in the 16th
century and they continued into the 17th century. Vanitas art is a type
of allegorical art representing a higher ideal or containing hidden
meanings.[4] Vanitas are very formulaic and they use literary and
traditional symbols to convey mortality. Vanitas often have a message
that is rooted in religion or the Christian Bible.[5] In the 17th
century the vanitas genre was popular among Dutch painters. The
paintings often have symbolic imagery which attempts to convey the
message that we will die, and we should think about futility of our
earthly pursuits.[2] The well known Spanish vanitas refer to Spain's
rulers and the politics of Spain.[3] It was popular to include skulls in
vanitas paintings. In the 17th century, a skull symbolized the
ephemeral nature of life." (wikipedia.org) "Mortality salience is the awareness by individuals that their death is inevitable. The
term derives from terror management theory, which proposes that
mortality salience causes existential anxiety that may be buffered by an
individual's cultural worldview and/or a sense of self-esteem. Terror management theory Main article: Terror management theory Mortality
salience engages the conflict that humans have to face both their
instinct to avoid death completely, and their intellectual knowledge
that avoiding death is ultimately futile. According to terror management
theory, when human beings begin to contemplate their mortality and
their vulnerability to death, feelings of terror emerge because of the
simple fact that humans want to avoid their inevitable death.[1]
Mortality salience comes into effect, because humans contribute all of
their actions to either avoiding death or distracting themselves from
the contemplation of it. Thus, terror management theory asserts that
almost all human activity is driven by the fear of death. Most
research done on terror management theory revolves around the mortality
salience paradigm. It has been found that religious individuals as well
as religious fundamentalists are less vulnerable to mortality salience
manipulations, and so religious believers engage in cultural worldview
defense to a lesser extent than nonreligious individuals.[2] Self-esteem Mortality
salience is highly manipulated by one's self-esteem. Individuals with
low self-esteem are more apt to experience the effects of mortality
salience, whereas individuals with high self-esteem are better able to
cope with the idea that their death is uncontrollable. As an article
states, "according to terror management theory, increased self-esteem
should enhance the functioning of the cultural anxiety buffer and
thereby provide protection against death concerns".[3] Potential to cause worldview defense Mortality
salience has the potential to cause worldview defense, a psychological
mechanism that strengthens people's connection with their in-group as a
defense mechanism. Studies also show that mortality salience can lead
people to feel more inclined to punish what they believe to be minor
moral transgressions. One such study divided a group of judges into two
groups—one that was asked to reflect upon their own mortality, and one
group that was not. The judges were then asked to set a bond for an
alleged prostitute. The group that had reflected on mortality set an
average bond of $455, while the control group's average bond was $50.[4]
What prompted the increase is unclear, only the correlation was
demonstrated. Possible interpretations include cultural beliefs about
maintaining moral codes leading to a successful afterlife as promised in
religions incentivizing the punishment of moral transgressions, or that
the increased punishments could simply represent a desire to be more
impactful on the world before death, some other cause, or multiple. Another
study found that mortality salience could cause an increase in support
for martyrdom and military intervention. It found that students who had
reflected on their mortality showed preference towards people who
supported martyrdom, and indicated they might consider martyrdom
themselves. They also found that, especially among students who were
politically conservative, mortality salience increased support for
military intervention, but not among students who were politically
liberal." (wikipedia.org) "A
headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually
stone, that is placed over a grave. It is traditional for burials in the
Christian, Jewish, and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases,
it has the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death inscribed
on it, along with a personal message, or prayer, but may contain pieces
of funerary art, especially details in stone relief. In many parts of
Europe, insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very
common. Use Marble headstone of a couple buried together in
Singapore, showing an arched emblem, signifying the reunification with
one's partner in heaven. Within the arch is a statue of Jesus Christ The
stele (plural stelae), as it is called in an archaeological context, is
one of the oldest forms of funerary art. Originally, a tombstone was
the stone lid of a stone coffin, or the coffin itself, and a gravestone
was the stone slab (or ledger stone) that was laid flat over a grave.
Now, all three terms ("stele", "tombstone" or "gravestone") are also
used for markers set (usually upright) at the head of the grave. Some
graves in the 18th century also contained footstones to demarcate the
foot end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that
marked the whole perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely
annotated with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and
sometimes a memorial mason and plot reference number. Many cemeteries
and churchyards have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by
machine mower. In some UK cemeteries, the principal, and indeed only,
marker is placed at the foot of the grave. Owing to soil movement
and downhill creep on gentle slopes, older headstones and footstones
can often be found tilted at an angle. Over time, this movement can
result in the stones being sited several metres away from their original
location.[citation needed] Graves and any related memorials are a
focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often
added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle
the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones
and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a
symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were
even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were
still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a Christian
context, the very wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within
churches rather than having simply external gravestones. Crematoria
frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a
grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for
remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium
for example may serve this purpose. Materials A tombstone at the grave of Paavo Ruotsalainen (1777–1852) in Nilsiä, Kuopio, Finland A
cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently
prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a
conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to
six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be
placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to
facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite, marble and other kinds
of stone are usually created, installed, and repaired by monumental
masons. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones
may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people;[1]
or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or
vandalised. Restoration is a specialized job for a monumental
mason. Even overgrowth removal requires care to avoid damaging the
carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left
to naturally die off, never pulled off forcefully. Many materials have
been used as markers. Stone Fieldstones. In many cultures
markers for graves other than enclosed areas, such as planted with
characteristic plants particularly in northern Europe the yew, were
natural fieldstones, some unmarked and others decorated or incised using
a metal awl. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the
deceased's name and age. Granite. Granite is a hard stone and
requires skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using
computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil.
Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the
blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
Marble and limestone. Both limestone and marble take carving well.
Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. The mild acid in rainwater
can slowly dissolve marble and limestone over time, which can make
inscriptions unreadable. Portland stone was a type of limestone commonly
used in England – after weathering, fossiliferous deposits tend to
appear on the surface. Marble became popular from the early 19th
century, though its extra cost limited its appeal. Sandstone.
Sandstone is durable, yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone
markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks are
discernible, while others have delaminated and crumbled to dust.
Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers of the
sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 17th
century, sandstone replaced field stones in Colonial America. Yorkstone
was a common sandstone material used in England. Slate. Slate can
have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to
delamination. Slate was commonly used by colonial New England carvers,
especially in Boston where elaborate slate markers were shipped down the
Atlantic coast as far south as Charleston and Savanah. It takes
lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or gilding.
Schist. Schist Was a common material for grave making in the American
Colonies during the 17th and 18th Century. While harder to Carve than
Sandstone or Slate, lettering and symbols usually had to be carved
deeper into the stone and therefore held up well over long periods of
time. While not as durable as most slate, most have held up well against
the elements. The Maymūnah Stone, a tombstone with an Arabic
inscription dated 1174 on a reused Roman marble block. Now exhibited at
the Gozo Museum of Archaeology in Malta.[2] The Maymūnah
Stone, a tombstone with an Arabic inscription dated 1174 on a reused
Roman marble block. Now exhibited at the Gozo Museum of Archaeology in
Malta.[2] Slate gravestone of Josiah Leavitt (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth County, Massachusetts Slate gravestone of Josiah Leavitt (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth County, Massachusetts Slate vestige of a Jewish gravestone depicting a Tzedakah box. Jewish cemetery in Otwock (Karczew-Anielin), Poland. Slate vestige of a Jewish gravestone depicting a Tzedakah box. Jewish cemetery in Otwock (Karczew-Anielin), Poland. Gravestone showing death date of 1639, Wormshill, Kent, England. Gravestone showing death date of 1639, Wormshill, Kent, England. HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME – A headstone in the Jerusalem British World War I Cemetery on Mount Scopus HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME – A headstone in the Jerusalem British World War I Cemetery on Mount Scopus
Elaborately carved grave slab at Shebbear (Devon, England) showing a
skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection
Elaborately carved grave slab at Shebbear (Devon, England) showing a
skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection Tottering Victorian headstones in Woolaton, in Nottingham, England Tottering Victorian headstones in Woolaton, in Nottingham, England Schist tombstone dated 1795, carved by Josiah Manning in Mansfield CT. Schist tombstone dated 1795, carved by Josiah Manning in Mansfield CT. Metal, wood and plants Grave Marker, Gwa'sala Kwakwaka'wakw (Native American), late 19th century, wood, pigment, Brooklyn Museum Wood grave marker using Canadian Syllabics Iron cross on a grave in Ekshärad cemetery. Wooden grave markers stored at Heidal Church, Norway
Iron. Iron grave markers and decorations were popular during the
Victorian era in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, often being produced
by specialist foundries or the local blacksmith. Cast iron headstones
have lasted for generations while wrought ironwork often only survives
in a rusted or eroded state. In eastern Värmland, Sweden, iron crosses
instead of stones have been popular since the 18th century. White
bronze. Actually sand cast zinc, but called white bronze for marketing
purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the
Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. The
company set up subsidiaries in Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and
Des Moines; a Chicago subsidiary was named the American Bronze Company,
while the St. Thomas White Bronze Monument Company was set up in
Ontario, Canada.[3] They are in cemeteries of the period all across the
U.S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3
less expensive and progressive. Wood. This was a popular material
during the Georgian and Victorian era, and almost certainly before, in
Great Britain and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few
survive beyond 50–100 years due to natural decomposition or termites and
other wood boring insects. Planting. Trees or shrubs,
particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of
ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden
marker. Inscriptions Markers sometimes bear inscriptions.
The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the
deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be
useful to genealogists and local historians. Larger cemeteries may
require a discreet reference code as well to help accurately fix the
location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the UK,
national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate
wording in inscriptions. The placement of inscriptions is traditionally
placed on the forward-facing side of the memorial but can also be seen
in some cases on the reverse and around the edges of the stone itself.
Some families request that an inscription be made on the portion of the
memorial that will be underground.[4] In addition, some
gravestones also bear epitaphs in praise of the deceased or quotations
from religious texts, such as "requiescat in pace". In a few instances
the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of
faith, claim to fame or even a curse – William Shakespeare's inscription
famously declares Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, To dig the dust enclosèd here. Blest be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. Or a warning about mortality, such as this Persian poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the Tajiki capital of Dushanbe.[5] Gravestone in Canada with indigenous language inscription in Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics I heard that mighty Jamshed the King Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words: "Many – like us – sat here by this spring And left this life in the blink of an eye. We captured the whole world through our courage and strength, Yet could take nothing with us to our grave." Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death: Hebrew inscriptions on gravestones in Sobědruhy, Czech Republic. Remember me as you pass by, As you are now, so once was I, As I am now, so you will be, Prepare for death and follow me. Multilingual gravestone in Llangybi, Gwynedd, Wales: Welsh, English, French Gurkha soldier's stone in Singapore Serbian women's stone in Gornja Gorevnica, Serbia. Information in English, Bible verse in German (Dallas, TX) Headstone
engravers faced their own "year 2000 problem" when still-living people,
as many as 500,000 in the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones
with pre-carved death years beginning with 19–.[6] Bas-relief
carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be
seen on some headstones, especially up to the 19th century. Since the
invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed photograph
or cameo of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the
loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or
achievements) are sometimes now engraved onto smooth stone surfaces. Some
headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone,
which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings
on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards
and still remain legible. Those fixed on the inside of churches, on the
walls, or on the floor (often as near the altar as possible) may last
much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a monumental
brass. The choice of language and/or script on gravestones has
been studied by sociolinguists as indicators of language choices and
language loyalty. For example, by studying cemeteries used by immigrant
communities,[7] some languages were found to be carved "long after the
language ceased to be spoken" in the communities.[8] In other cases, a
language used in the inscription may indicate a religious affiliation. Marker
inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the
grave marker installed in January 2008 at Cave Hill Cemetery in
Louisville, Kentucky by Mathew Prescott, an employee of PETA. The grave
marker is located near the grave of KFC founder Harland Sanders and
bears the acrostic message "KFC tortures birds".[9] The group placed its
grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens. Form and decoration This
section needs additional citations for verification. Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this
section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011)
(Learn how and when to remove this template message) Typical Death’s Head design, often used on tombstones in Colonial America. (Boston MA) An equestrian motif on an 11th-century Swedish gravestone. Islamic cemetery in Sarajevo, with columnar headstones Gravestones
may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled,
pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th
century, they were often decorated with memento mori (symbolic
reminders of death) such as skulls or winged skulls, winged cherub
heads, heavenly crowns, or the picks and shovels of the gravedigger.
Somewhat unusual were more elaborate allegorical figures, such as Old
Father Time, or emblems of trade or status, or even some event from the
life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Large tomb chests,
false sarcophagi as the actual remains were in the earth below, or
smaller coped chests were commonly used by the gentry as a means of
commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th
century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to
highly decorated, and often using crosses on a base or other shapes
differing from the traditional slab. By this time popular designs were
shifting from symbols of death like Winged heads and Skulls to Urns and
Willow trees. Marble also became overwhelmingly popular as a grave
material during the 1800s in the United States. More elaborately carved
markers, such as crosses or angels also became popular during this time.
Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were
popular during the mid-20th century. Islamic headstones are
traditionally more a rectangular upright shaft, often topped with a
carved topknot symbolic of a turban; but in Western countries more local
styles are often used. Some form of simple decoration may be
employed.[10] Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar
themes in many faiths. Some examples are: Anchor: Steadfast hope Angel of grief: Sorrow Arch: Rejoined with partner in Heaven Birds: The soul Book: Faith, wisdom Cherub: Divine wisdom or justice Column: Noble life Broken column: Early death Conch shell: Wisdom Cross, anchor and Bible: Trials, victory and reward Crown: Reward and glory Dolphin: Salvation, bearer of souls to Heaven Dove: Purity, love and Holy Spirit Evergreen: Eternal life Garland: Victory over death Gourds: Deliverance from grief Hands: A relation or partnership (see Reference 3) Heart: Devotion Horseshoe: Protection against evil Hourglass: Time and its swift flight
IHS: Stylized version of iota-eta-sigma, a Greek abbreviation of "Iesus
Hominum Salvator" ("Jesus, savior of mankind"); alternatively treated
as an initialism for "in Hoc Signo (Vinces)": "In this sign you shall
conquer." Commonly indicates Roman Catholic faith, the latter especially
Society of Jesus. Ivy: Faithfulness, memory, and undying friendship Lamb: Innocence, young age Lamp: Immortality Laurel: Victory, fame Lily: Purity and resurrection Lion: Strength, resurrection Mermaid: Dualism of Christ – fully God, fully man Oak: Strength Olive branch: Forgiveness, and peace Palms: Martyrdom, or victory over death Peacock: Eternal life Pillow: a deathbed, eternal sleep Poppy: Eternal sleep Rooster: Awakening, courage and vigilance Shell: Birth and resurrection Skeleton: Life's brevity Snake in a circle: Everlasting life in Heaven Square and Compasses: Freemasonry Star of David: Judaism Swallow: Motherhood Broken sword: Life cut short Crossed swords: Life lost in battle Torch: Eternal life if upturned, death if extinguished Tree trunk: The beauty of life Triangle: Truth, equality and the trinity
Tzedakah box (pushke): Righteousness, for it is written "...to do
righteousness and justice" (Gen 18:19) and "the doing of righteousness
and justice is preferable to the Lord than sacrificial offering"
(Proverbs 21:3). Shattered urn: Old age, mourning if draped Weeping willow: Mourning, grief Greek letters might also be used: α ω {\displaystyle \alpha \omega } \alpha \omega (alpha and omega): The beginning and the end χ ρ {\displaystyle \chi \rho } \chi \rho (chi rho): The first letters spelling the name of Christ" (wikipedia.org)
Condition:New
Brand:Hyde and Eek Boutique
Type:Tombstone
Occasion:Halloween
Color:Multicolor
Theme 3:Tombstone
Material:Plastic, Styrofoam, Polystyrene
Time Period Manufactured:2020-Now
Country/Region of Manufacture:China
Theme 2:Grim Reaper
Theme 1:Halloween
PicClick Insights - 35" GRIM REAPER TOMBSTONE Light Up See You Soon large gravestone death styrofoam PicClick Exclusive
Popularity - 2 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 161 days for sale on eBay. Good amount watching. 0 sold, 1 available.
Popularity - 35" GRIM REAPER TOMBSTONE Light Up See You Soon large gravestone death styrofoam
2 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 161 days for sale on eBay. Good amount watching. 0 sold, 1 available.
Best Price -
Price - 35" GRIM REAPER TOMBSTONE Light Up See You Soon large gravestone death styrofoam
Seller - 1,180+ items sold. 0% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.
Seller - 35" GRIM REAPER TOMBSTONE Light Up See You Soon large gravestone death styrofoam
1,180+ items sold. 0% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.