Mughal Empire
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Jahangir, 1605-1628
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The Mughal Empire , self-designated as Gurkani , was a
Persianate
empire extending over large parts of
the
Indian
subcontinent and ruled by a
dynasty
of
Chagatai-Turkic
origin.
In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim
rulers, fell to the superior mobility and firepower of the Mughals. The
resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule,
but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and
diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralized,
and uniform rule. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under
Akbar
, the Mughals united their far-flung
realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor
who had near-divine status. The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most
revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated
silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The
relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a
factor in India's economic expansion, resulting in greater patronage of
painting
, literary forms, textiles, and
architecture
. Newly coherent social groups in
northern and western India, such as the
Marathas
, the
Rajputs
, and the
Sikhs
, gained military and governing ambitions
during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both
recognition and military experience. Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave
rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern
and eastern India. As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were
able to control their own affairs.
The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder
Babur
's victory over
Ibrahim Lodi
in the first
Battle of Panipat (1526)
. It reached its peak
extent under Aurangzeb
, and declined rapidly after his death
(in 1707) under a series of ineffective rulers. The empire's collapse followed
heavy losses inflicted by the smaller army of the
Maratha Empire
in the
Deccan Wars
(1680–1707), which encouraged the
Nawabs of
Bengal
,
Bhopal
,
Oudh
,
Carnatic
,
Rampur
, the
Nizam of Hyderabad
and the
Shah of Afghanistan
to declare their
independence from the Mughals. Following the
Third Anglo-Maratha war
in 1818, the Mughal
emperor became a pensioner of the
Raj
, and the empire, its power now limited to
Delhi
, lingered on until 1857, when it was
effectively dissolved after the
fall of Delhi
during the
Indian Rebellion
that same year.
The Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turko-Mongols from modern-day
Uzbekistan
, who claimed direct descent from
both Genghis Khan
(through his son
Chagatai Khan
) and
Timur
. At the height of their power in the late
17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled much of the
Indian subcontinent
, extending from
Bengal
in the east to
Kabul
& Sindh in the west,
Kashmir
in the north to the
Kaveri
basin in the south. Its population
at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million (quarter of the
world's population), over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres
(1.2 million square miles).
The "classic period" of the empire started in 1556 with the ascension of
Akbar the Great
to the throne. Under the rule
of Akbar and his son
Jahangir
, India enjoyed economic progress as
well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious
and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior. He also forged
alliances with several Hindu
Rajput
kingdoms. Some
Rajput
kingdoms continued to pose a significant
threat to Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but they were subdued by
Akbar. Most
Mughal emperors
were
Muslims
. However Akbar in the latter part of
his life, and Jahangir, were followers of a new religion called
Deen-i-Ilahi
, as recorded in historical books
like
Ain-e-Akbari
&
Dabestan-e Mazaheb
.
The reign of
Shah Jahan
, the fifth emperor, was the golden
age of
Mughal architecture
. He erected several large
monuments, the most famous of which is the
Taj Mahal
at
Agra, as well as the
Moti Masjid, Agra
, the
Red Fort
, the
Jama Masjid, Delhi
, and the
Lahore Fort
. The Mughal Empire reached the
zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of
Aurangzeb
and also started its terminal decline
in his reign due to
Maratha
military resurgence under
Shivaji Bhosale
. During his lifetime, victories
in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 1.25 million square miles,
ruling over more than 150 million subjects, nearly 1/4th of the world's
population, with a combined GDP of over $90 billion.
By the mid-18th century, the
Marathas
had routed Moghul armies, and won over
several Mughal provinces from the
Deccan
to
Bengal
, and internal dissatisfaction arose due
to the weakness of the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic systems,
leading to the declaration of independence by the Nawabs of
Bengal
,
Bhopal
,
Oudh
,
Carnatic
,
Rampur
, the
Nizam of Hyderabad
and
Shah of Afghanistan
. In 1739, the Mughals were
crushingly defeated in the
Battle of Karnal
by the forces of
Nader Shah
, and their capital
sacked and looted
, drastically accelerating
their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become severely
limited and the last emperor,
Bahadur Shah II
, had authority over only the
city of
Shahjahanabad
. He issued a
firman
supporting the
Indian Rebellion of 1857
and was therefore
tried by the British for treason, imprisoned, exiled to
Rangoon
and the last remnants of the empire
were taken over by the
British Raj
.
Etymology
Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by
Babur
as the
Timurid
empire, which reflected the heritage of
his dynasty, and was the term preferred by the Mughals themselves. Another name
was Hindustan
, which was documented in the
Ain-i-Akbari
, and which has been described as
the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term "Mughal"
was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The use of
Mughal, deriving from the Arabic and Persian corruption of
Mongol
, and emphasising the Mongol origins of
the Timurid dynasty, gained currency during the nineteenth century, but remains
disputed by
Indologists
. Babur's ancestors were sharply
distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards
Persian
rather than
Turko-Mongol
culture.
History
The Mughal Empire at its zenith spanned from
Afghanistan
to
Cape Comorin
c. 1700.
The Mughal Empire was founded by
Babur
, a Central Asian ruler who was descended
from the Turko-Mongol conqueror
Timur
on his father's side and from
Chagatai
, the second son of the Mongol ruler
Genghis Khan
, on his mother's side. Ousted from
his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his
ambitions. He established himself in
Kabul
and then pushed steadily southward into
India from
Afghanistan
through the
Khyber Pass
. Babur's forces occupied much of
northern India after his victory at
Panipat
in 1526. The preoccupation with wars
and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate
the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident
under his son, Humayun
, who was driven out of India and into
Persia by rebels. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between
the
Safavid
and Mughal Courts, and led to
increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire. The restoration of
Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he
died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayun's son,
Akbar
, succeeded to the throne under a regent,
Bairam Khan
, who helped consolidate the Mughal
Empire in India.
Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all
directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the
Godavari
river. He created a new class of
nobility loyal to him from the military aristocracy of India's social groups,
implemented a modern government, and supported cultural developments. At the
same time, Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies. India
developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and
economic development. Akbar allowed free expression of religion, and attempted
to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by
establishing a new religion,
Din-i-Ilahi
, with strong characteristics of a
ruler cult. He left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the
midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would
emerge. Akbar's son,
Jahangir
, ruled the empire at its peak, but he
was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the
influence of rival court cliques. During the reign of Jahangir's son,
Shah Jahan
, the culture and splendour of the
luxurious Mughal court reached its zenith as exemplified by the
Taj Mahal
. The maintenance of the court, at
this time, began to cost more than the revenue.
Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal
Dara Shikoh
, became regent in 1658, as a result
of his father's illness. However, a younger son,
Aurangzeb
, allied with the Islamic orthodoxy
against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, and
ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.
Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him
incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire
gained political strength once more, but his religious conservatism and
intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society. Aurangzeb expanded the
empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many
parts of the empire were in open revolt. Aurangzeb's son,
Shah Alam
, repealed the religious policies of
his father, and attempted to reform the administration. However, after his death
in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone,
four emperors successively ascended the throne.
During the reign of
Muhammad Shah
, the empire began to break up,
and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to
Maratha
hands. The
campaigns
of
Nadir Shah
, who had reestablished Iranian
suzerainty
over most of West Asia and Central
Asia, culminated with the
Sack of Delhi
and shattered the remnants of
Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control
their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.But, according to
Sugata Bose
and
Ayesha Jalal
, the Mughal Emperor, however,
continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim
gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial
acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.
The Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II
made futile attempts to reverse
the Mughal decline, and ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers.
In 1784, the Marathas under
Mahadji Scindia
won acknowledgement as the
protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until
after the
Second Anglo-Maratha War
. Thereafter, the
British East India Company
became the
protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. After a crushed
rebellion
which he nominally led in 1857–58,
the last Mughal,
Bahadur Shah Zafar
, was deposed by the British
government, who then assumed formal control of the country.
List of Mughal
emperors
Main article:
Mughal emperors
Emperor |
Birth |
Reign Period |
Death |
Notes |
Babur
| Feb 23, 1483
| 1526–1530
| Dec 26, 1530
| Was a direct descendant of
Genghis Khan
through his mother and was
related to Timur
through his father. Founded the
Mughal Empire after his victories at the
Battle of Panipat (1526)
and the
Battle of Khanwa
.
|
Humayun
| Mar 6, 1508
| 1530–1540
| Jan 1556
| Reign interrupted by
Suri Dynasty
. Youth and inexperience at
ascension led to his being regarded as a less effective ruler than
usurper,
Sher Shah Suri
.
|
Sher Shah Suri
| 1472
| 1540–1545
| May 1545
| Deposed Humayun and led the
Suri Dynasty
.
|
Islam Shah Suri
| c.1500
| 1545–1554
| 1554
| 2nd and last ruler of the
Suri Dynasty
, claims of sons Sikandar
and Adil Shah were eliminated by Humayun's restoration.
|
Humayun
| Mar 6, 1508
| 1555–1556
| Jan 1556
| Restored rule was more unified and effective than initial reign of
1530–1540; left unified empire for his son,
Akbar
.
|
Akbar
| Nov 14, 1542
| 1556–1605
| Oct 27, 1605
| He and
Bairam Khan
defeated
Hemu
during the
Second Battle of Panipat
and later won
famous victories during the
Siege of Chittorgarh
and the
Siege of Ranthambore
; He greatly
expanded the Empire and is regarded as the most illustrious ruler of the
Mughal Empire as he set up the empire's various institutions; he married
Mariam-uz-Zamani
, a Rajput princess.
One of his most famous construction marvels was the
Lahore Fort
.
|
Jahangir
| Oct 1569
| 1605–1627
| 1627
| Jahangir set the precedent for sons rebelling against their emperor
fathers. Opened first relations with the
British East India Company
. Reportedly
was an alcoholic, and his wife Empress
Noor Jahan
became the real power behind
the throne and competently ruled in his place.
|
Shah Jahan
| Jan 5, 1592
| 1627–1658
| 1666
| Under him, Mughal art and architecture reached their zenith;
constructed the
Taj Mahal
,
Jama Masjid
,
Red Fort
,
Jahangir mausoleum
, and
Shalimar Gardens
in
Lahore
. Deposed by his son Aurangzeb.
|
Aurangzeb
| Oct 21, 1618
| 1658–1707
| Mar 3, 1707
| He reinterpreted
Islamic law
and presented the
Fatawa-e-Alamgiri
; he captured the
diamond
mines of the
Sultanate of Golconda
; he spent the
major part of his last
27 years
in the war with the Maratha
rebels; at its zenith, his conquests expanded the empire to its greatest
extent; the over-stretched empire was controlled by
Mansabdars
, and faced challenges after
his death. He is known to have transcribed copies of the
Qur'an
using his own styles of
calligraphy
. He died during a campaign
against the ravaging
Marathas
in the
Deccan
.
|
Bahadur Shah I
| Oct 14, 1643
| 1707–1712
| Feb 1712
| First of the Mughal emperors to preside over an empire ravaged by
uncontrollable revolts. After his reign, the empire went into steady
decline due to the lack of leadership qualities among his immediate
successors.
|
Jahandar Shah
| 1664
| 1712–1713
| Feb 1713
| Was an unpopular incompetent titular figurehead;
|
Furrukhsiyar
| 1683
| 1713–1719
| 1719
| His reign marked the ascendancy of the manipulative
Syed Brothers
, execution of the
rebellious
Banda
. In 1717 he granted a
Firman
to the
English East India Company
granting
them duty-free trading rights for
Bengal
, the Firman was repudiated by
the notable
Murshid Quli Khan
.
|
Rafi Ul-Darjat
| Unknown
| 1719
| 1719
|
|
Rafi Ud-Daulat
| Unknown
| 1719
| 1719
|
|
Nikusiyar
| Unknown
| 1719
| 1743
|
|
Muhammad Ibrahim
| Unknown
| 1720
| 1744
|
|
Muhammad Shah
| 1702
| 1719–1720, 1720–1748
| 1748
| Got rid of the
Syed Brothers
. Tried to counter the
emergence of the
Marathas
but his empire disintegrated.
Suffered the invasion of
Nadir-Shah
of Persia in 1739.
|
Ahmad Shah Bahadur
| 1725
| 1748–54
| 1775
|
|
Alamgir II
| 1699
| 1754–1759
| 1759
| He was murdered according by the
Vizier
Imad-ul-Mulk
and
Maratha
associate
Sadashivrao Bhau
.
|
Shah Jahan III
| Unknown
| In 1759
| 1772
| Was ordained to the imperial throne by
Sadashivrao Bhau
. Shah Jahan III was
overthrown after the
Third Battle of Panipat
by Prince
Mirza Jawan Bakht
.
|
Shah Alam II
| 1728
| 1759–1806
| 1806
| Was nominated as the
Mughal Emperor
by
Ahmad Shah Durrani
after the
Third Battle of Panipat
. In 1764 saw
the defeat of the combined forces of Mughal, Nawab of Oudh & Nawab of
Bengal, Bihar at the hand of East India Company at the
Battle of Buxar
. Following this defeat,
Shah Alam II left Delhi for Allahabad, ending hostilities with the
Treaty of Allahabad
(1765), which
marked the beginning of British rule in India officially. Shah Alam II
was reinstated to the throne of Delhi in 1772 by
Mahadaji Shinde
under the protection of
the Marathas.[39]
He was the last
Mughal Emperor
to have
de jure
control over the empire.
|
Akbar Shah II
| 1760
| 1806–1837
| 1837
| He was a British pensioner. Under British protection, his imperial
name was removed from the official coinage after a brief dispute with
the
British East India Company
;
|
Bahadur Shah II
| 1775
| 1837–1857
| 1862
| The last Mughal emperor was deposed by the British and exiled to
Burma
following the
Indian Rebellion of 1857
. End of Mughal
dynasty.
|
Influence on the Indian subcontinent
Mughal influence on South Asian art and culture
Main article:
Indo-Persian culture
Outline of South Asian history
History of Indian subcontinent
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|
Emperor
Shah Jahan
, who ruled from
1628–1658 CE
A major Mughal contribution to the
Indian subcontinent
was their unique
architecture
. Many monuments were built by the
Muslim emperors, especially
Shahjahan
, during the Mughal era including the
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Taj Mahal
, which is known to be one of the
finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other
World Heritage Sites
include
Humayun's Tomb
,
Fatehpur Sikri
, the
Red Fort
, the
Agra Fort
, and the
Lahore Fort
The palaces, tombs, and forts built
by the dynasty stands today in
Agra,
Aurangabad
,
Delhi
,
Dhaka
,
Fatehpur Sikri
,
Jaipur
,
Lahore
,
Kabul
,
Sheikhupura
, and many other cities of
India
,
Pakistan
,
Afghanistan
, and
Bangladesh
.[40]
With few memories of
Central Asia
, Babur's descendents absorbed
traits and customs of the
South Asia
,[41]
and became more or less naturalised.
Mughal influence can be seen in cultural contributions such as:
- Centralised, imperialistic government which brought together many
smaller kingdoms.
-
Persian art
and culture amalgamated with
Indian art
and culture.
- New trade routes to
Arab
and
Turkic
lands.
- The development of
Mughlai cuisine
.
- Mughal Architecture found its way into local
Indian architecture
, most conspicuously in
the palaces built by
Rajputs
and
Sikh
rulers.
- Landscape gardening
Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan, their influence can still be seen
widely today. Tombs of the emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan,
and Pakistan.
The Mughal artistic tradition was eclectic, borrowing from the European
Renaissance as well as from Persian and Indian sources. Kumar concludes, "The
Mughal painters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from
Renaissance and Mannerist painting, but their structuring principle was derived
from Indian and Persian traditions."
Urdu language
Main articles:
Persian language in South Asia
and
Persian and Urdu
Although
Persian
was the dominant and "official"
language of the empire, the language of the elite later evolved into a form
known as
Urdu
. Highly Persianized and also influenced by
Arabic and Turkic, the language was written in a type of
Perso-Arabic script
known as
Nastaliq
, and with literary conventions and
specialized vocabulary being retained from
Persian
,
Arabic
and
Turkic
; the new dialect was eventually given
its own name of Urdu. Compared with
Hindi
, the Urdu language draws more vocabulary
from Persian and Arabic (via Persian) and (to a much lesser degree) from Turkic
languages where Hindi draws vocabulary from
Sanskrit
more heavily. Modern
Hindi
, which uses
Sanskrit
-based vocabulary along with Urdu loan
words from Persian and Arabic, is
mutually intelligible
with
Urdu.[48]
Today, Urdu is the national language of
Pakistan
and also an important co-official
language in India
.
Mughal society
A silver
coin made during the reign
of the
Mughal Emperor
Alamgir II
.
The Indian economy remained as prosperous under the Mughals as it was,
because of the creation of a road system and a uniform currency, together with
the unification of the country. Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops
were sold throughout the world. Key industries included shipbuilding (the Indian
shipbuilding industry was as advanced as the European, and Indians sold ships to
European firms), textiles, and steel. The Mughals maintained a small fleet,
which merely carried pilgrims to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses in
Surat
.
Debal
in
Sindh
was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also
maintained various river fleets of
Dhows
, which transported soldiers over rivers
and fought rebels. Among its admirals were
Yahya Saleh
,
Munnawar Khan
, and
Muhammad Saleh Kamboh
. The Mughals also
protected the
Siddis
of
Janjira
. Its sailors were renowned and often
voyaged to China and the East African Swahili Coast, together with some Mughal
subjects carrying out private-sector trade.
Cities and towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part, they
were military and political centres, not manufacturing or commerce centres. Only
those guilds which produced goods for the bureaucracy made goods in the towns;
most industry was based in rural areas. The Mughals also built
Maktabs
in every province under their
authority, where youth were taught the
Quran
and
Islamic law
such as the
Fatawa-e-Alamgiri
in their indigenous
languages.
The Bengal region was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by
the Mughals in 1590 to the seizure of control by the British East India Company
in 1757. In a system where most wealth was hoarded by the elites, wages were low
for manual labour. Slavery was limited largely to household servants. However
some religious cults proudly asserted a high status for manual labour.
The nobility was a heterogeneous body; while it primarily consisted of Rajput
aristocrats and foreigners from Muslim countries, people of all castes and
nationalities could gain a title from the emperor. The middle class of openly
affluent traders consisted of a few wealthy merchants living in the coastal
towns; the bulk of the merchants pretended to be poor to avoid taxation. The
bulk of the people were poor. The standard of living of the poor was as low as,
or somewhat higher than, the standard of living of the Indian poor under the
British Raj
; whatever benefits the British
brought with canals and modern industry were neutralized by rising population
growth, high taxes, and the collapse of traditional industry in the nineteenth
century.
Science and technology
Muhammad Salih Thattvi
headed the
task of creating a seamless
celestial globe
using a secret wax
casting method, the famous celestial globe was also inscribed with
Arabic and Persian inscriptions.
Astronomy
While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy,
Mughal astronomers continued to make advances in
observational astronomy
and produced nearly a
hundred Zij treatises.
Humayun
built a personal observatory near
Delhi. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal
observatories were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition. In particular, one
of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the
seamless celestial globe.
Alchemy
Sake Dean Mahomed
had learned much of Mughal
Alchemy and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps
to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the
Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II
and the cities of Allahabad and
Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.
Sake Dean Mahomed
was appointed as shampooing
surgeon to both Kings
George IV
and
William IV
.
Technology
See also:
History of gunpowder: India
Fathullah Shirazi
(c. 1582), a Persian polymath
and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed a
volley gun
.
Akbar was the first to initiate and utilize metal cylinder rockets known as
bans particularly against
War elephants
, during the Battle of Sanbal.
In the year 1657, the
Mughal Army
utilized rockets during the
Siege of Bidar
. Prince Aurangzeb's forces
discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan himself was
mortally wounded after a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot and after
twenty-seven day's of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the victorious
Mughals.
Later onward's the
Mysorean rockets
were upgraded versions of
Mughal rockets utilized during the
Siege of Jinji
by the progeny of the
Nawab of Arcot
.
Hyder Ali
's father
Fatah Muhammad
the constable at
Budikote
, commanded a corps consisting of 50
rocketmen (Cushoon ) for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realized the
importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder
rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favor of the
Sultanate of Mysore
during the
Second Anglo-Mysore War
particularly during the
Battle of Pollilur
.
Gallery
-
The Bazaar
outside the
Wazir Khan Mosque
in
Lahore
.
-
A Mughal
War elephant
guarding the gateway
to the Grand Mosque in
Mathura
.
-
A depiction of the
Taj Mahal
.
-
Mughal troopers purchase copper utensils in the
Bazaar
.
See also
-
Mughal (tribe)
-
Mughal cuisine
, a style of cooking
-
Mughal gardens
, a style of gardens
-
Mughal painting
, a style of painting
-
Mughal weapons
-
Mughal-e-Azam
, an India film
-
Mirza Mughal
, fifth son of
Bahadur Shah II
, the last Mughal emperor
-
History of India
-
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
- Mongols
-
Persianate states
-
Persians in the Mughal Empire
-
Turco-Persian
/Turco-Mongol
-
List of the Muslim Empires
-
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
-
Islamic architecture
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